^/*  PRINCETON,  N.  J.  ^^ 


Purchased   by  the    Hamill    Missionary   Fund. 


BR  127  .S63  1911 

Speer,  Robert  E.  1867-1947. 

The  light  of  the  world 


THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 


The  Lost  Sheep  '' 

BY  A.  W     SWORl> 


Cfje  iigfjt  of  tfje  Woxlh 

^^0^T  ma 

A   BRIEF    COMPARATIVE    STUDV^    ^ 

OF  (       JAN  9.2  19 

Christianity  and  Non-Christi; 
Religions 


^^^  ^ 


ROBERT   E.    SPEER 


PUBLISHED    BY 

THE  CENTRAL  COMMITTEE   ON  THE    UNITED  STUDY 
OF  MISSIONS    a*    ar    ar    ar    ar    WEST   MEDFORD,   MASS. 

All  n'orhts  reserved 


Copyright,  April,  1911 


CENTRAL  COMMITTEE  ON  THE  UNITED 
STUDY  OF  MISSIONS 


Frank  Wood,  Printer 

Boston,  Mass. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 
Introduction  .......        vii 

Chapter     I.     Hinduism 1 

Chapter   II.      Buddhism         .....         61 

Chapter  III.     Animism,       Confucianism       and 

Taoism 121 

Chapter  IV.     Mohammedanism  .         .         .       17*7 

Chapter  V.     What   the  Christians    of   Asia 

Think   of  the  Non-Christian. 

Religions 241 

Chapter  VI.      Christ,    the     Only    Light     of 

the  World         .         .         ,         .       297 
Index        ,        ,        ,        , 369 


FOREWORD 

Ten  years  have  passed  since  the  organization  of  the 
Central  Committee  on  the  United  Study  of  Missions 
in  connection  with  the  Ecumenical  Conference  held  in 
New  York,  May,  1900.  Ten  study  books  have  been 
published  through  the  Macmillan  Company,  and  about 
seven  hundred  thousand  copies  have  been  sold  through 
Women's  Boards  of  Missions.  The  last  volume, 
''Western  Women  in  Eastern  Lands,"  by  Helen  Barrett 
Montgomery,  has  reached  sales  of  nearly  one  hundred 
thousand,  and  marks  not  only  the  completion  of  ten 
years  of  study  but  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of  the  organi- 
zation of  Women's  Foreign  Missionary  Boards  in  the 
United  States.  It  has  led  to  the  celebration  of  the 
Jubilee  of  Missions. 

Our  book  for  the  coming  year,  ''The  Light  of  the 
World,"  is  published  by  the  Central  Committee.  Its 
author  is  Mr.  Robert  E.  Speer,  who  deals  in  an 
attractive  and  sympathetic  way  with  the  great  religions 
of  the  world.  No  one  is  better  fitted  for  the  task,  and 
Mr.  Speer  has  in  these  six  chapters  presented  fairly 
these  Eastern  faiths  and  shown  clearly  their  inadequacy 
to  human  need.  The  testimony  of  eminent  men  who 
have  come  out  from  these  religions  into  the  true  Light 
cannot  be  disputed  or  discounted. 

The  presence  in  our  own  country  of  certain  men  and 
women  who  are  giving  incomplete  and  incorrect  state- 
ments of  non-Christian  faiths,  which  are  sometimes 
accepted  by  American  women,  makes  this  volume 
especially  valuable  at  this  time. 

Mrs.  Henry  W.  Peabody. 
Miss  E.  Harriet  Stanwood. 
Miss  Rachel  Lowrie. 
Mrs.  Decatur  M.  Sawyer. 
Miss  Grace  T.  Colburn. 
Mrs.  a.  V.    Pohlman. 
Miss  Elizabeth  C.  Northup. 
Miss  Olivia  H.  Lawrence. 


INTRODUCTION 

Christ  is  the  Light  of  the  World.  He  is  its 
only  and  its  perfect  Light.  In  comparing  Chris- 
tianity with  the  other  religions  of  the  world 
Christians  are  not  seeking  for  something  in  the 
other  religions  which  Christianity  lacks.  We 
believe  that  in  Christ  all*  fullness  dwells  and  that 
we  are  to  be  complete  in  Him.  We  make  the 
comparison  of  Christianity  with  the  non-Christian 
religions  for  three  purposes:  First,  to  discover 
where  the  points  of  contact  and  of  separation  are 
found,  in  order  that  Christianity  may  be  the 
more  effectively  presented  to  the  non-Christian 
peoples;  Second,  to  bring  clearly  into  view 
those  fundamental  differences  between  Chris- 
tianity and  all  other  religions  which  justify  and 
require  the  effort  of  missions  to  make  Christianity 
the  religion  of  all  men;  and,  Third,  to  bring  to 
light  by  the  comparison  of  Christianity  with  the 
gropings  of  the  non-Christian  faiths,  and  by  its 
application  to  all  the  life  of  humanity,  those 
latent  and  inexhaustible  treasures  in  Christianity 
which  will  otherwise  be  undeveloped. 

It  is  on  this  basis  that  we  lay  Christianity 
down  for  this  comparison.  Not  for  one  moment 
do  we  classify  it  with  the  world's  religions  or 
regard  it  simply  as  the  natural  crown  of  humanity's 
religious  aspiration.      There    is    in    it   something 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

radically  distinctive  which  sets  Christianity  in  a 
class  apart  and  alone.  As  the  Rev.  C.  F.  Andrews 
has  said  in  a  recent  article  in  a  Christian 
periodical  in  India: — 

Christ  is  indeed  the  fulfillment  of  each  world- 
religion,  and  the  Light  of  each  world-faith,  yet  He  is 
something  infinitely  more.  He  is  the  Crucified.  And 
He  makes,  with  every  one  who  comes  to  Him,  the 
tremendous  primary  condition  of  sacrifice,  of  death. 
In  Himself  is  a  new  beginning,  a  new  life-start;  but  this 
can  only  be  reached  by  the  death  of  the  old  life.  Christ 
came  indeed  to  fulfill  Judaism  ;  but  there  was  no  easy, 
smooth,  accommodating,  assimilative  evolution.  The 
Jews  crucified  Him.  P^ul  the  Apostle  is  never  tired  of 
declaring  that  Christ  was  the  fulfilling  of  the  law  ;  yet  he 
knew,  through  intense  agony  of  suffering,  that  he  must 
die  to  the  law,  in  order  to  live  to  Christ;  that  the  old 
man  must  be  crucified,  so  that  the  new  man  may  be 
made  manifest.  Even  so,  Hinduism,  great  and  noble  as 
it  is,  must  die  and  be  reborn  before  it  can  live  to 
Christ.  The  Christian  believes  in  fulfillment — no  one 
more  so!  but  it  is  fulfillment  through  the  Cross;  fulfill- 
ment through  a  resurrection  from  the  dead.  ( The 
Itidian  Standard^  November,  1910.) 

It  is  as  those  who  are  certain  of  this,  and  who 
know  Christ  to  be  the  Lord  of  all  mankind,  the 
Saviour  of  the  world,  that  we  take  up  in  candor 
and  sympathy  the  study  of  the  religious  thought 
and  life  of  the  nations  which  have  riot  known  of 
Christ  and  must  be  won  to  Him.  The  very 
security  of  our  faith  in  Christ  makes  it  possible 
for  us  to  view  in  love  and  tenderness  all  out- 
reachings  of  men  after  that  which  can  be  found 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

in  Christ  alone,  and  to  regard  in  pity  and  com- 
passion all  those  deep  evils  which  have  burdened 
the  religious  nature  and  darkened  the  worship 
and  polluted  the  life  of  man. 

Our  one  desire  is  to  know  the  facts  in  order 
that  we  may  clearly  discern  and  fully  discharge 
our  duty.  In  seeking  for  these  facts  we  shall 
consider  first  Hinduism,  then  Buddhism,  then 
Animism,  Confucianism  and  Taoism,  and  then 
Mohammedanism.  These  religions  include  prac- 
tically the  whole  population  of  the  non-Christian 
world.  After  these  studies  we  shall  weigh  the 
testimony  of  the  men  of  Asia  who  have  in  their 
own  personal  experience  tested  and  compared  the 
non-Christian,  religions  with  Christianity;  and 
last  of  all,  we  shall  consider  the  claims  of  Chris- 
tianity as  the  final  and  absolute  religion. 

In  these  studies  there  has  been  no  attempt  at 
novelty  of  statement.  The  effort  has  been  simply 
to  set  forth  the  comparative  facts  clearly  and 
carefully,  citing  at  every  point  the  most  fair  and 
competent  authorities,  and  seeking  only  to  bathe 
the  whole  investigation  in  the  atmosphere  of 
missionary  sympathy  and  of  a  Christian  faith,  at 
once  open-minded  and  perfectly  fearless  and 
assured. 


CHAPTER  I 
HINDUISM 


CHAPTER  I 


HINDUISM 


Hinduism  is  at  once  the  oldest  and  the  newest,  Complexity 
the  most  massive  and  the  most  loose-woven,  the  of  Hinduism, 
most  composite  and  the  most  simple,  with  the 
noblest  and  basest  elements  of  any  of  the  non-Chris- 
tian religions.  In  its  most  ancient  and  worthy 
form  it  dates  from  the  dawn  of  history.  In  the 
gray  of  that  early  morning  when  the  Aryans  moved 
out  from  Central  Asia,  our  ancestors  passed  west- 
ward, while  the  ancestors  of  our  Indian  kinsmen 
streamed  south  through  the  mountain  passes  of 
the  Punjab,  and  subdued  or  absorbed  the  Dra- 
vidian  aborigines.  Yet  Hinduism  is  also  the 
new^est  of  religions,  shifting  its  view  and  modi- 
fying its  character  to  incorporate  the  forces  that 
beat  upon  it  and  to  which  it  would  fain  adapt 
itself  without  surrendering  its  integrity  or  break- 
ing with  its  past.  It  is  the  most  massive  and 
composite  of  religions.  It  is  indeed  rather  a 
conglomerate  of  religions  than  a  religion.  The 
social  principle  of  caste  gives  it  a  firm  and  mar- 
velous unity,  but  within  this  unity  there  is  a 
diversity  of  ideas,  of  theological  priiiciples,  and 
of  moral  character  so  comprehensive  as  to  include 
all    contradictories    and     to   make   room    for   the 


4  THE   LIGHT   OF   THE    WORLD 

highest  and  lowest  elements.  On  the  one  hand 
I  are  the  ideas  of  redemption  from  the  world  and  of 
union  with  God,  which  India  has  sought  with 
/  ''desperate  resolution  for  three  thousand  tragic 
years,"  contempt  for  all  earthly  things  as  of  no 
account  in  comparison  with  the  heavenly  treasure, 
the  spirit  of  sacrifice  and  devotion  which  found 
utterance  in  such  prodigal  and  reckless  offering 
of  life  in  loyalty  to  religion  that  it  had  to  be 
prohibited  by  the  British  Government  in  the  name 
alike  of  mercy  and  of  truth,  and  the  exaltation  of 
bhakti  or  living  faith  as  the  true  way  by  which  to 
draw  near  to  God.  On  the  other  hand  is  the  idea 
of  pantheism  which  vitiates  India's  thinking 
about  God  and  the  world,  and  which,  penetrating 
the  whole  Hindu  faith,  obscures  the  personality 
of  God,  reduces  the  actual  world  to  illusion,  and 
obliterates  the  fundamental  moral  distinctions. 
And  beneath  this  are  idolatry,  base  and  debasing 
conceptions  of  God,  and  in  certain  sections  of 
Hinduism  the  vile  and  unspeakable  degradation 
which  exalts  lust  into  a  religious  principle. 
Noble  We  shall   be   able   better   to   estimate  the  good 

Qualities  of  that  is  in  Hinduism  and  more  justly  to  discern 
Indian  People.  ^^^  judge  the  evil,  if  we  distinguish  between  the 
religion  and  the  people  of  India.  Some  people 
are  better  than  the  logical  result  of  their  religious 
ideas  would  suggest,  and  others  are  worse.  Here 
in  the  West  we  are  worse  than  our  religion.  Its 
commonest  requirements  are  in  advance  of  our 
practices.      But   in   India    the   people    are   better 


HINDUISM  5 

than  their  religion.  They  fall  short,  as  we  do, 
of  what  their  best  religious  ideals  require  of 
them,  but  many  of  them  live  far  above  its  moral 
permissions.  India  would  be  a  sorry  land  if 
there  were  no  men  in  it  superior  in  character  to 
Hinduism's  gods.  ''It  is  a  wonder  to  my  mind,  " 
said  Bishop  Caldwell,  "that  the  people  of  India, 
with  such  a  religion  as  theirs,  should  possess  so 
many  good  qualities  as  I  believe  they  do ;  and  my 
explanation  of  the  wonder  is  that,  notwithstanding 
their  religion,  God  has  conferred  upon  them, 
through  the  teaching  of  His  providence  and 
through  the  inheritance  of  experience,  many 
excellent  gifts.  I  admire  much  that  I  see 
amongst  the  people  of  India.  I  admire  their 
religioiisness ;  I  admire  their  temp^erance;  I 
admire  their  patience  and  gentleness  and  coui;tesy  ; 
I  admire  their  care  of  their  relations  to  the 
farthest  remove,  and,  in  many  particulars,  I 
admire  what  remains  of  the  primeval  framework 
of  their  village  system  and  their  social  system. 
Only  let  the  still  more  important  elements  of 
individual  and  national  character  which  are  pro- 
duced by  Christianity,  and  by  Christianity  alone, 
be  superadded  to  these  and  similar  characteristics 
of  race,  and  the  result  will  be  a  style  of  character 
of  which  neither  India  nor  Christianity  will  have 
need  to  be  ashamed."  (''Christianity  and  Hin- 
duism," p.  40.)  In  general,  even  now  the  people 
of  India  are  simple,  temperate,  kindly,  religious. 
There   are   five   sins    for   which,    in    their   view. 


6  THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

j  there  is  no  atonement — killing  a  Brahman,  rob- 
I  bing  a  Brahman,  defiling  a  teacher's  wife,  eating 
cow's  flesh,  and  drinking  intoxicants.  The  god 
Krishna  said,  "A  drunkard  shall,  in  his  next 
birth,  get  the  birth  of  a  dog  or  a  vulture."  And 
no  peojDle  on  earth  have  shown  more  religious 
devotion,  uttered  in  more  ready  and  unhesitating 
1  sacrifice.  "I  have  found  no  people  in  Europe 
''  more  religious,"  says  Sir  Monier  Williams, 
''none  more  patiently  persevering  in  common 
duties,  none  more  docile  and  amenable  to  author- 
ity, none  more  dutiful  to  ^Darents,  none  more 
faithful  in  service.  ...  I  doubt,  however, 
whether  the  worst  Indians  are  so  offensive  in 
their  vices  as  the  worst  type  of  low,  unprincipled 
Europeans.  .  .  .  They  show  greater  respect  for 
animal  life  than  Europeans.  They  have  more 
natural  courtesy  of  manners,  more  duti fulness, 
more  veneration  for  rank,  age  and  learning,  and 
they  are  certainly  more  temperate  in  eating  and 
drinking."  (''Modern  India  and  the  Indians," 
pp.  88,  128— quoted  by  Sukumar  Haldar,  "Hin- 
duism," p.  22.)  The  natural  virtues,  or  capaci- 
ties for  virtues,  of  the  Indian  people  are  needed 
for  the  uses  of  Christ. 
The  Good  And  we  are  able  to  recognize  not  only  the  good 

in  Indian  that  IS  in  the  Indian   people  but  also,  as  has  been 

Religion.  said,  and  as  we  shall   have  to  consider  more  fully 

later,  the  good  that  is  in  the  Indian  religion  and 
its  sacred  books.  It  is  true  that  even  the  most 
friendly  judges  of  these  writings  admit  that  the 


BINDUISAI  7 

good  is  buried  in  what  is  worthless  or  worse. 
MaxMuller,  in  the  "Preface  to  the  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East, "  speaks  of  the  good  in  them  as  treas- 
ures extracted  from  refuse,  as  solitary  fragments 
of  pure  gold  disinterred  from  a  heap  of  rubbish. 
Dr.  Jacob  Chamberlain  gathered  a  collection  of 
these  fragments,  which  he  was  accustomed  to 
quote  in  his  preaching  in  India  and  in  his  mis- 
sionary addresses  in  America.  But  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  point  out,  as  Max  IMuller  also  admitted, 
that  these  noble  passages  were  as  oases  in  great 
deserts,  and  he  told  of  an  old  Indian  who  ex- 
claimed in  surprise  at  hearing  these  quotations, 
'^I  never  found  any  things  like  these  in*  our 
sacred  books." 

We  shall  understand  better  the  religious  prob-  TKe  Sacred 
lem  in  India  and  have  some  idea  of  the  religious  Books  of 
development  which  has  taken  place  if  we  look  Hinduism, 
for  a  moment  at  these  sacred  books  which  record 
the  history  of  Indian  religion,  and  which,  as  the 
Bibles  of  India,  exercise  a  powerful  influence 
over  its  religious  life  to-day.  The  sacred  litera- 
ture of  Hinduism  is  of  two  classes,  Sruti,  "that 
which  is  heard  or  revealed,"  and  Smriti,  "that 
which  is  remembered  and  handed  down  by  tradi- 
tion." The  Sruti  includes  the  four  Vedas,  the 
Rig- Veda,  the  Sama-Veda,  the  Yajur-Veda  and 
the  Atharva-Veda,  and  the  three  portions  of  each 
of  these  Vedas;  i.  e.^  the  Mantras,  the  Brahmanas 
and  the  Upanishads.  The  Smriti  may  be  said 
to  denote  all  the  post-Vedic  literature  under  the 


8  THE   LIGHT   OF   THE    WORLD 

five  divisions:   (1)   The  Darsanas   or  six  Systems 
of  Philosophy.      There  were  six  of  these  systems, 
as   follows:    Nyaya,  Vaiseshika,  Sankhya,  Yoga, 
Mimansa  and  Vedanta,  of  which  the  last  has  been 
the    most    influential;      (2)     The   six    Vedangas, 
covering  rules  for  sacrifice,  grammar,  astronomy, 
etc.;  (3)  The  Smarta-sutras,  containing  rules  relat- 
ingtodomestic  rites  and  conventional  usages;   (4) 
The  Dharma-sastras,  or  Law-books,  of  which  the 
most   famous    and    influential    was    the   Code    of 
Manu  ;  (5)  The  Bhakti-sastras,  including  the  great 
poems,  the  Mahabharata  and  Ramayana,  and  also 
the    Puranas    and    Tantras.       Of  this  literature, 
the  hymns  of  the  Vedas  or  the  Mantras  express 
the     early     stage    of     religious    thought,     which 
may  be   called  physiolatry;  the   Brahmanas    rep- 
resent   ritualism    and    sacrifice;    the    Upanishads 
and  Darsanas,  rationalistic  and  pantheistic   phil- 
osophy;  Manu,    caste   and  domestic  usages,    and 
the  Bhakti-sastras   the   principle   of   devotion    to 
personal  gods. 

Of  all  this  literature,  India  thinks  most  to-day 
of  the  Vedic  hymns,  the  Upanishads,  the  Vedanta 
philosophy,  and  the  section  of  the  Mahabharata 
known  as  the  Bhagavad-gita.  (1)  The  Arya 
Samaj  represents  the  highest  devotion  to  the 
Vedas.  In  the  Arya  catechism  occurs  the  ques- 
tion, ^'What  revelation  is  true  and  infallible?" 
and  the  answer  is,  ''The  Vedas  are  the  only 
infallible  revelation,"  conforming  to  the  Arya's 
tests  of   a  true  revelation.      The  next  question  is, 


HINDUISM  9 

''Give  the  meaning  of  the  Vedas;"  and  the 
answer  is,  "The  divinely  inspired  w^ritings  con- 
tained in  the  oldest  books  that  exist  in  the  world, 
embodying  the  highest  secular,  spiritual  and 
occult  truths,  sciences  and  philosophies,  are 
called  the  Vedas."  The  noblest  god  in  the  Vedic 
hymns  isJV^ai^na,  of  whom  Professor  Hopkins 
says,  ''Varuna  beside  the  loftiest  figure  in  the 
Hellenistic  pantheon  stands  like  a  god  beside 
a  man."  (''Religions  of  India,"  p.  172.)  But 
Varuna  was  not  popular,  and  he  was  disjDlaced  by 
other  deities, — Agni,  the  fire  god,  and  Indra,  the 
warrior  god.  If  there  had  only  been  a  succession 
of  poets  like  those  who  composed  the  penitential 
hymns  in  the  Rig- Veda,  says  Dr.  Griswold, 
"Varuna  might  have  prevailed;  just  as  Yahwfib 
in  Israel  prevailed  over  the  Baalim.  And  if 
Varuna  had  prevailed,  the  religious  history  of 
India  would  have  been  different  from  wdiat  it  has 
been.  ^If  Varuna  had  prevailed,'  as  Professor 
Bloomfield  says,  'India  would  have  become  mono- 
theistic and  theocratic,  which  it  never  did.'" 
(Griswold,  "The  God  Varuna  in  the  Rig-Veda," 
p.  33.)  Not  only  are  the  Vedas,  accordingly,  not 
monotheistic,  as  Nehemiah  Goreh,  one  of  the 
most  notable  converts  from  Hinduism,  showed 
("Supposed  and  Real  Doctrines  of  Hinduism," 
pp.  11-18),  but  the  baser  gods  triumphed  over  -^ 
the  nobler  ones. 

(2)  The  Upanishads  were  the  Hindu  scriptures   Upanishads. 
which    appealed   so   forcefully   to   Schopenhauer. 


10         THE   LIGHT   OF   THE    WORLD 

''Oh,  how  thoroughly  is  the  mind  here  washed 
clean  of  all  early  engrafted  Jewish  superstitions, 
and  of  all  philosophy  that  cringes  before  those 
superstitions!  In  the  whole  world  there  is  no 
study,  except  that  of  the  originals,  so  beneficial 
and  so  elevating  as  that  of  the  Upanishads.  It 
has  been  the  solace  of  my  life;  it  will  be  the 
solace  of  my  death."  The  U^Danishads  re^^resent 
the  groping  of  men's  souls  for  peace  after  their 
discontent  with  the  futility  of  the  sacrificial  ritu- 
alism of  the  Brahmanas.  Their  object,  as  Max 
Muller  sa3^s,  was  "to  show  the  utter  uselessness  — 
nay,  the  mischievousness — of  all  ritual  perform- 
ances; to  condemn  every  sacrificial  act  which  has 
for  its  motive  a  desire  or  hope  of  reward;  to 
deny,  if  not  the  existence,  at  least  the  exceptional 
and  exalted  character  of  the  Devas,  and  to  teach 
that  there  is  no  hope  of  salvation  and  deliverance 
except  by  the  individual  Self  recognizing  the  true 
and  universal  Self,  and  finding  rest  there,  where 
alone  rest  can  be  found."  ("Hibbert  Lectures,  " 
pp.  340,  341.)  This  note  of  pessimism,  which 
has  never  since  left  Indian  thought,  now  apj^ears. 
How  can  the  soul  be  glad  when  its  only  hope  of 
salvation  is  found  within  itself?  And  with  all 
this  sad  but  noble  questioning  the  Upanishads 
mingle  much  that  is  unworthy.  As  Williams 
says,  they  are  "a  labyrinth  of  mystical  ideas  and 
puerile  conceits."  Max  Muller  says  that  it  was 
a  problem  with  him  how  these  books  "should, 
side  by   side   of  so   much   that   is   fresh,  natural. 


HINDUISM  11 

simple,  beautiful  and  true,  contain  so  much  that 
is  not  only  unmeaning,  artificial  and  silly,  but 
even  hideous  and  repellent."  C^'The  Upani- 
shads, "  Vol.  I,  Introduction.) 

(3)  The  Vedanta  philosophy  in  the  Upanishads,    Darsanas. 
and  in  the  philosophical  writings  of  the  Darsanas 
which  followed  them,  is  the  great  intellectual  in-_ 
fluence  among  the  thoughtful  Hindus  to-day.      It  ,' 

is  the  higher  Hinduism  as  opj^osed  to  popular 
Hinduism.  The  best  book  on  the  subject  is 
Slater's  ''The  Higher  Hinduism  in  Relation  to 
Christianity."  These  two  types  of  Hinduism, 
the  philosophical  and  the  popular,  ^^I'esent  to  the 
missionary  enterprise  the  great  religious  2:)roblem 
of  the  present  day,  and  must  be  considered  later 
together. 

(4)  The  most  po2:)ular  Bible  of  Hinduism  to-   Bhagavad- 
day  is  the  Bhagavad-gita,  embodying  the  Vedanta   gita. 
view  and  also  ministering  to  the  popular  need  of 

faUh  in  some  personal  deity.  It  is  this  combina- 
tion which  gives  it  its  favor.  As  Mr.  Slater 
says,  ''The  insufficiency  of  a  j^antheistic  creed, 
and  the  need  of  some  Object  of  worship  and 
devotion  in  which  the  heart  may  rest,  are  shown 
very  clearly  in  the  Bhagavad-gita,  the  most 
popular  devotional  book  of  the  thoughtful  classes 
of  India.  Its  main  teaching  is  that  men's  devo- 
tion (bhakti)  must  be  directed  to  a  person — the 
Krishna,  the  Ishta  Dcvata — as  a  representative  ' 
of  the  Supreme,  with  the  additional  quality  of  a 
Redeemer.      It   arose  from  a  fusion   of   the  tran- 


12         THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

scendental  and  popular  elements,  both  of  which 
had  existed  all  along  in  Hinduism.  It  seeks  to 
combine  the  mystic  pantheism  of  the  Vedanta 
with  an  attractive  mythology,  and  hence  its 
popularity."  (^'The  Higher  Hinduism,"  p. 
125.)  The  aim  of  the  book  is  also  to  harmonize 
the  doctrines  of  the  three  most  influential  of  the 
philosophical  schools,  the  Yoga,  the  Sankhya 
and  the  Vedanta.  It  is  the  loftiest  flight  of 
Hindu  thought  and  feeling,  with  many  noble 
sentiments,  with  none  of  the  degrading  represen- 
tations of  Krishna  found  in  the  Puranas.  Its 
style  is  deemed  incomparable  and  Krishna  be- 
comes in  it  not  simply  a  great  hero,  but  the 
Supreme  Being.  The  poem  possesses  a  charm 
and  beauty  of  its  own,  and  is  more  Christian  in 
sentiment  than  any  other  Indian  literature.  It 
inculcates  such  virtues  as  '^  ^fearlessness,  purity  of 
heart,  steadfastness,  self-restraint,  harmlessness, 
truth,  absence  of  wrath,  renunciation,  peaceful- 
ness,  absence  of  calumny,  compassion  to  living 
beings,  uncovetousness,  mildness,  modesty,  ab- 
sence of  fickleness,  boldness,  forgiveness,  forti- 
tude, uprightness,  amity,  absence  of  pride,*  as 
Divine  and  human  properties."  (Gita,  XVI,  1-3; 
Slater,  ''The  Higher  Hinduism,  p.  146.)  But 
all  that  is  good  in  the  Gita  is  in  Christianity, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  teaches  a  doctrine  that 
would  justify  murder;  it  upholds  caste,  binding 
its  shackles  on  again  against  the  assault  made 
upon   them  by   Buddhism ;   it    blends    pantheism 


HINDUISM  13 

with  polytheism;  it  teaches  that  all  qualities, 
whether  good  or  bad,  proceed  from  Krishna,  and 
so  it  obscures  ethical  distinctions  and  paralyzes 
moral  responsibility;  it  teaches  the  Vedantic 
doctrine  of  Maya  or  illusion,  the  unreality  of  the 
world;  it  has  no  conception  ''of  the  real  evil  of 
sin  as  a  violation  of  a  moral  government,  and 
makes  no  provision  whereby  sin  may  be  justly 
forgiven  and  its  thraldom  and  government 
removed."  "The  salvation  it  teaches,"  as 
Bishop  Caldwell  said,  ''is  not  a  salvation  from 
sin  by  means  of  a  new  birth  to  righteousness, 
commencing  in  the  present  life  and  projected 
hereafter,  but  merely  a  salvation  from  the  necessity 
of  being  born  again  in  repeated  births,  by  means 
of  the  final  emancipation  of  spirit  from  matter." 
And  yet  the  Gita  is  India's  noblest  religious  book. 

"The  one  idea  which  is  impressed  on  the  India  Still 
mind,"  says  the  Rev.  J.  N.  Farquhar,  after  a  Seeking  a 
survey  of  the  sacred  books  of  India,  "is  that 
Hindu  literature  is  an  endless  succession  of  fruit- 
less attempts  to  reach  a  satisfying  sacred  book. 
As  the  history  of  Hinduism  is  a  long  search  after 
God,  each  new  effort  implying  the  failure  of  the 
preceding,  so  the  unimaginable  extent  of  the 
sacred  literature  is  an  open  confession  that  the 
right  book  has-  not  yet  been  found.  There  are 
many  Hindu  books  which  please  the  philosopher; 
there  are  many  Hindu  books  which  amuse  and 
interest  the  peasant;  but  there  is  no  Hindu  book 
which    interests    both    and   uplifts   both.      Every 


Bibl 


14        THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

aspect  of  Hinduism  and  every  sect  has  its  sacred 
book,  but  iHere  is  no  book  which  teaches  Hindu- 
ism as  such.  Perhaps  the  Gita  is  the  best  com- 
pendium in  existence,  but  even  the  Gita  is  a 
^  sectarian  manual  and  is  totally  unfit  for  the 
\  educated.  Does  not  this  history,  so  great,  so 
suggestive,  and  yet  so  unsatisfying,  show  that  the 
Hindu  soul  needs  just  such  a  book  as  the  Bible?" 
(''The  Young  Men  of  India,"  March,  1910. 
Article,  ''The  Bibles  of  India,"  p.  41.) 

"I  am  not  a  Christian,"  wrote  a  Hindu  in  a 
widely  quoted  article  in  an  Indian  magazine  eight 
years  ago,  "but  I  think  the  more  Christ-like  we 
become,  the  better  for  us  and  our  land.  And 
towards  securing  this  happy  end,  nothing  can  be 
more  effective  than  the  practice  of  placing  before 
the  minds  of  our  students  daily  and  repeatedly  the 
ideal  of  love,  self-abnegation,  and  suffering  for 
others'  sake,  that  is  j^resented  to  us  in  the  pages 
of  the  Gospels.  What  figure  in  the  ancient 
history  of  India  impresses  us  with  greater  rever- 
ence, except  it  be  Raja  Ram  Chundra?  But  the 
narrative,  describing  the  life  and  deeds  of  the 
latter,  is  marred  with  gross  inconsistencies,  and 
its  value  as  a  testimony  is  much  diminished. 
How  simple,  how  direct,  how  unadorned  is  the 
Gospel  narrative!  Truth  is  stamped  on  it;  it 
carries  its  proof  along  with  it.  No  external  evi- 
dence is  needed.  Half  an  hour's  study  of  the 
Bible  will  do  more  to  remodel  a  man  than  a 
whole  day  spent  in  repeating  the  slokas  of    the 


1m»ia — Jain  Templk  at  Sadkee,  Oodeypore 
(Figure  of  Vishnu) 


Linduism 


HINDUISM  15 

Puranas  or  the  mantras  of  the  Rig- Veda." 
(''The  Kayastha  Samachar, "  August,  1902. 
Article,  ''The  Religion  of  Our  Young  Men,  "  pp. 
144,  145.)  "Yes,"  Max  Muller  tells  us  a  friend 
wrote  to  him,  "you  are  right;  how  tremendously 
ahead  of  other  sacred  books  is  the  Bible!  The 
differences  strike  one  as  almost  unfairly  great. " 
But  the  unfairness  lies  in  withholding  the  one 
supreme  book  from  the  world. 

The  three  forms  of  Hinduism  then  with  which  Hindi 
Christianity  comes  into  contact  to-day  in  India  To-day. 
maybe  said  roughly  to  be  philosophic  Hinduism, 
popular  Hinduism  and  reformed  Hinduism.  The 
lines  of  distinction  are  not,  of  course,  clear. 
Philosophic  Hinduism  and  poj^ular  Hinduism 
both  represent  a  moral  advance  on  the  Hinduism 
of  two  centuries  ago.  The  influence  of  the  con- 
tact with  Christian  ethics  and  the  legislation  of 
the  British  Government  have  abolished,  as  we 
shall  see,  many  gross  evils,  but  both  philosophic 
and  popular  Hinduism  cling  still  to  positions 
from  which  many  Hindus  are  prepared  to  break 
away.  Something  must  be  said  about  each  of 
these  three  types  of  Hinduism. 

1.  As  a  result  of  the  Western  education  which  PhilosopKic 
India  has  been  receiving  for  fifty  years  and  of  the  Hinduism, 
revived  study  of  Sanskrit  by  European  students 
whose  labors  have  been  popularized  in  India  by 
native  scholars,  the  educated  classes  of  India 
"now  understand  something  of  the  history  of 
their  religion  and   know  that  their  ancient  faiths 


16         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

were  very  different  from  modern  Hinduism." 
The  consciousness  of  the  necessity  of  religion  and 
the  growth  of  the  spirit  of  nationalism  have  com- 
bined with  the  Christian  influences  to  produce  a 
great  reaction  in  favor  of  ancient  Hinduism. 
''Just  as  the  scholars  of  mediaeval  times  in 
Europe  appealed  to  the  reason  and  the  imagination 
by  eulogizing  the  speculations  and  poetry  of  the 
ancient  world,  so  the  Hindus  of  to-day  turn  to 
their  long- forgotten  literature,  and  seek  to  meet 
the  needs  of  society  by  a  renovated  Hinduism. 
The  more  thoughtful  of  the  people  have  beaten  a 
retreat  from  their  temples  to  their  sacred  books. 
Conscious  of  the  unsoundness  of  much  of  the  out- 
ward structure  of  their  faith,  they  have  fallen 
back  with  the  boldness  of  despair  on  their  ancient 
philosophy,  which  is  now  thrust  to  the  front  as 
the  main  support  of  Hinduism."  (Slater,  "The 
Higher  Hinduism,"  p.  12.)  The  core  of  this 
new  Hinduism  is  the  Vedanta  philosophy,  the 
old  pantheism  of  India,  read  full  of  new  meanings 
drawn  from  India's  contact  with  Christianity  and 
Western  thought.  Essentially,  however,  it  is  the 
old  pantheistic  philosophy.  In  its  view  the  uni- 
verse is  God;  from  Him  it  proceeds,  into  Him  it 
is  dissolved,  in  Him  it  breathes.  God  alone 
exists  truly,  the  world  falsely;  the  soul  only  is 
God  and  no  other.  Nothing  really  exists  but  the 
one  impersonal  Spirit  which  is  God.  This 
Spirit  is  itself  Existence,  Knowledge,  Joy,  but 
the  existence  is  without  consciousness  and  the  joy 


HINDUISM  17 

is  only  freedom  from  the  miseries  of  transmigra- 
tion. ''When  this  impersonal  unconscious  Spirit 
assumes  consciousness  and  personality — that  is, 
when  it  begins  to  exist  in  any  object,  to  think 
about  anything  or  be  joyful  about  anything — it 
does  so  by  associating  itself  with  Maya,  the 
power  of  Illusion."  (Murdoch,  "Philosophic 
Hinduism,"  p.  19.)  It  is  only  through  the  influ- 
ence of  Maya  or  illusion  that  we  look  upon  things 
as  different,  such  as  the  potter  and  his  pots  or  the 
weaver  and  his  beam,  or  indeed  that  we  see  them 
as  existing  at  all.  (Lai  Behari  Dey,  "Vedan- 
tism, "  p.  4.)  The  central  word  of  the  Vedanta 
is  Ekamivadvitiyam,  "One  only  without  a 
second."      God  only  is. 

It  is  true  that  into  all  this  the  modern  Vedan- 
tists  have  woven  a  great  deal  that  was  never 
dreamed  of  in  the  Upanishads,  but  they  have  not 
abandoned  the  old  pantheistic  philosophy.  "The 
creation,"  says  Saradananda,  "is  as  eternal  as 
the  creator  himself."  And  Vivakananda,  in  one 
of  his  lectures  on  the  unifying  of  one's  self  in  the 
Infinite,  exclaimed,  "I  am  neither  body  nor 
changes  of  the  body.  Nor  am  I  sense  nor  object 
of  senses.  I  am  existence  absolute.  Bliss  ab- 
solute. Knowledge  absolute.  I  am  it.  I  am  it. 
I  am  neither  death,  nor  fear  of  death,  nor  was  I 
ever  born,  nor  had  I  parents.  ...  I  am  without 
form,  without  limit,  beyond  space,  beyond  time. 
I  am  in  everything.  I  am  the  basis  of  the  Uni- 
verse.     Everywhere    am  I."      ("Homiletic    Re- 


18 


THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


view,"  April,  1901.  Article  by  F.  F. 
Ellinwood,   "Vedantism   in  America,"   p.   306.) 

Vivakananda.  No  two  personalities  have  contributed  more  to 
this  neo-Hinduism,  or  drawn  the  imagination  of 
Indians  more  powerfully  to  a  revivification  of  the 
ancient  faith,  than  Vivakananda  and  Mrs.  Annie 
Besant.  Vivakananda,  whose  real  name  was 
Narendra  Nath  Datta,  was  a  graduate  of  a  mis- 
sionary college  in  Calcutta  and  a  member  of  a 
well-known  family  there,  some  of  whose  members 
were  Christians.  He  studied  law,  but  did  not 
practice.  For  a  time  he  was  a  member  of  the 
Brahmo  Samaj,  and  as  a  teacher  in  the  Metro- 
politan Institution  founded  by  the  reformer 
Vidyasagar,  tried  to  prove  the  hollowness  of 
Hinduism.  Later  he  became  a  disciple  of  a 
Hindu  Ascetic,  Ramakrishna  Paramahansa, 
though  he  never  himself  practiced  asceticism. 
He  was  not  a  scholar,  and  he  was  sometimes 
carried  beyond  the  truth  in  his  enthusiasm,  but 
he  was  a  man  of  much  eloquence  and  magnetism, 
and  his  success  in  America  as  a  preacher  of  the 
higher  Hinduism  paved  the  way  for  many  suc- 
cessors, and  his  influence  in  India  powerfully 
aided  the  revival  of  a  nationalistic  Hindu  spirit. 
(See  '^Swami  Vivakananda  and  His  Guru.") 

Mrs.  Besant.  Mrs.  Besant  also  has  had  an  interesting  history. 

/     She  has  been   successively  Protestant   and  High 

Church  Christian,  anti-Christian,  theist,  atheist, 

I    materialist,  anti-materialist,  Malthusian  and  anti- 

'   Malthusian,    spiritualist,    theosophist,    pantheist, 


HINDUISM  19 

polythelst  and  Hindu.  The  theosophical  move- 
ment, with  which  she  is  still  allied,  exerts  a  wide 
influence  in  India.  It  is  a  movement  within  Hin- 
duism, and  Mrs.  Besant  is  at  present  the  leading 
figure  in  it  and  in  the  Hindu  revival,  ardent  in 
her  devotion  to  the  ancient  glories  of  Hinduism, 
and  in  her  opposition  to  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity. With  the  patriotic  devotion  of  India  to 
its  past  we  cannot  but  have  great  sympathy;  and, 
as  we  shall  see,  in  some  of  the  ideas  of  that  past, 
and  all  the  more  as  modified  by  the  necessities  of 
India's  spiritual  experience  and  by  contact  with 
Christian  thought,  there  are  the  very  points  of 
contact  which  we  seek  and  without  which  we 
should  be  in  despair  of  reaching  the  Indian  mind 
and  heart. 

2.    The  theology  of  popular  Hinduism  is  poly-   pop^i^r 
theism,   and    its   worship   is   idolatry.      It   "con-   Hinduism, 
ceives    the    Impersonal    Spirit    as   making   itself 
known     under    three     forms,"     says     Dr.  Datta.  , 
''Brahma  (masculine,    not    Brahma,    neuter)  the  1 
Creator,     Vishnu     the    Preserver,  and     Siva    the  j 
Destrpyer.      Modern     Hinduism    concerns     itself   ' 
mainly  w^ith   the   last  two   persons  of   its  trinity. 
Both    are    closely    related    to    certain    accessory 
divinities,  such  as  Ganesa  and  Subrahmanya,  the 
two  sons  of    Siva,  Rama   and   Krishna,  the   two 
most    important    incarnations    of    Vishnu,    or    to 
female  divinities,  such  as  the  wives  of  Siva  and 
Vishnu.      Brahma   apparently   needs   no   remem- 
brance; his  work  of  creation  is  done,  and  nothing 


20         THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

can  undo  it.  Probably  not  more  than  three 
temples  exist  to  his  honor  throughout  India.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  worship  of  Siva  and  Vishnu 
forms  the  very  heart  of  the  later  Hindu  religion.'* 
(Datta,  ''The  Desire  of  India,"  p.  85.)  Of  the 
moral  and  religious  character  of  popular  Hindu- 
ism, Hindu  witnesses  will  be  the  best.  Sukumar 
Haldar  calls  it  ''gloomy  temples,  blood-stained 
altars  and  hideous  images,  "  a  "filthy  veil"  which 
hides  the  romantic  scenery  of  the  ancient  faith 
that  lies  forgotten  beyond.  And  he  adds  in  his 
defence  of  the  ancient  faith,  "No  one  has 
attempted  to  demonstrate  the  original  monothe- 
istic form  of  the  Hindu  religion  without  raising 
against  himself  a  host  of  bigots  believing  in  the 
existence  of  330  millions  of  deities.  The  very 
fact  that  the  Brahman  priests  had  at  one  time  a 
predominant  influence  over  state  and  society  sufl^i- 
ciently  accounts  for  the  consequences  that  have 
followed.  Such  being  the  case,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  foreigners  in  India  and  superficial  observers 
should  form  a  low  estimate  of  the  Hindu  religion. 
Exoteric  Hinduism  to-day  has  scarcely  a  single 
element  of  unmixed  good  to  boast  of.  The  rites 
of  religion  and  the  ceremonials  of  society  scarcely 
exhibit  a  single  aspect  which  is  in  any  way  cal- 
culated to  impress  favorably  a  superficial  foreign 
critic.  These  are  deplorable  facts.  To  these, 
indeed,  are  due  in  a  great  measure  the  thousand 
woes  that  are  telling  on  the  present  generation  of 
Hindus.    .    .    .   What  is  forced   upon  their  notice 


HINDUISM  21 

(7.  ^.,  the  notice  of  Englishmen  in  India)  by  daily 
experience  gives  them  the  idea  that  Hinduism  is 
about  the  worst  religion  that  ever  claimed  a  fol- 
low^ing. "  (Haldar,  ^'Hinduism,"  pp.  4,  5.) 
"The  Daily  Hindu,"  one  of  the  strongest  native 
papers  in  India,  the  organ  of  the  Orthodox 
Hindus  of  Madras,  is  even  more  plain  spoken: 
''The  glory  has  departed  out  of  our  religious 
institutions,  and  what  once  contributed  to  purify 
the  minds  of  millions  of  men  and  women  are  now 
the  grovelling  ground  of  some  of  the  most  igno- 
rant and  wretched  of  human  beings  .  .  .  who 
merely  wallow  in  a  mire  of  voluptuous  pastimes, 
wasting  the  pious  contributions  of  the  widow  and 
the  orphan,  and  breeding  around  them  a  whole 
host  of  idle,  able-bodied  vagabonds.  The  vast 
majority  of  these  endowments  are  corrupt  to  the 
core.  They  are  a  festering  mass  of  crime  and 
vice  and  gigantic  swindling.  "  (Quoted  in  ''The 
Missionary  Review  of  the  World,"  April,  1896, 
p.  261.) 

"The  Reis  and  Rayyet, "  an  influential  paper 
of  the  Orthodox  Hindus  of  Calcutta,  speaks 
contemptuously  of  Mrs.  Besant's  ecstacies  over 
the  beauties  of  Hinduism,  and  says,  "When  an 
English  lady,  of  decent  culture,  professes  to  be  an 
admirer  of  Tantric  mysticism  and  Krishna  wor- 
ship, it  behooves  every  well-wisher  of  the  coun- 
try to  tell  her  plainly  that  sensible  men  do  not 
want  her  eloquence  for  gilding  what  is  rotten.  .  .  . 
If  the  Upanishads  (commentaries  on  the  Vedas, 


22        THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

etc.)  have  a  charm  for  Mrs.  Besant,  she  is  quite 
welcome  to  proclaim  her  views  on  the  subject. 
But  the  Upanishads  do  not  form  any  joart  of  the 
relisfion  of  the  Hindus  as  it  is  found  in  their 
everyday  life.  In  actual  practice  they  are  either 
Sivites  or  Saktas  or  Krishna  worshipers.  In 
fact,  abomination  worship  is  the  main  ingredient 
of  modern  Hinduism,  and  we  therefore  ask  Mrs. 
Besant  to  study  the  subject  a  little  more  carefully 
than  she  yet  appears  to  have  done.  If  she  will 
follow  our  advice  she  may,  j^i'ovided  she  is 
sincere  herself,  admit  sooner  or  later  that  the 
course  she  is  now  pursuing  is  fraught  with  mis- 
chief." While  of  the  Brahmanic  priesthood 
''The  Hindu"  declares,  "Profoundly  ignorant  as 
a  class,  and  infinitely  selfish,  it  is  the  mainstay  of 
every  unholy,  immoral  and  cruel  custom  and 
superstition  in  our  midst,  from  the  wretched 
dancing  girl,  who  insults  the  Deity  by  her  exist- 
ence, to  the  pining  child  widow,  whose  every 
tear  and  every  hair  of  whose  head  shall  stand  up 
against  every  one  of  us  who  tolerate  it  on  the  Day 
of  Judgment;  and  of  such  a  priestly  class  our 
women  are  the  ignorant  tools  and  helpless  dupes. " 
It  is  not  unnatural  that  Hindus  themselves 
should  speak  thus,  just  as  Christians  are  the 
severest  critics  of  degraded  forms  of  Christianity, 
but  Christian  students  who  are  eager  to  view  the 
religious  phenomena  of  India  with  sympathy, 
have  also  to  speak  in  sweeping  terms  of  the  great 
mass  of  Hinduism,      "I  verily  believe,"  says  Sir 


HINDUISM  23 

Monier  Williams,  ''that  the  religion  of  the  most 
of  the  Hindus  is  simply  demonolatry.  Men  and 
women  of  all  classes,  except  perhaps  those  edu- 
cated by  ourselves,  are  perpetually  penetrated 
with  the  idea  that  from  the  cradle  to  the  grave  j 
they  are  being  pursued  and  persecuted,  not  only 
by  destructive  demons,  but  by  simple,  mischievous  \ 
imps  and  spiteful  goblins.  This,  in  my  opinion, 
is  the  true  explanation  of  the  universal  worship 
of  Ganesa,  lord  of  the  demon  hosts."  (Quoted 
by  Grant,  ''Religions  of  the  World,"  p.  94.) 
And  in  the  development  of  popular  Hinduism, 
known  as  Saktism  or  Tantrism,  the  religion 
reaches  its  lowest  and  worst  stage.  The  Saktas 
worship  the  female  manifestation  of  the  god  Siva 
and  the  Tantras  are  their  sacred  books.  The 
worship  of  the  left-hand  Saktas  includes  unmen- 
tionable orgies  and  their  Tantras  are  too  evil  to 
be  translated.  (Hume,  "Missions  from  the 
Modern  View,"  pp.  72-74.) 

Swami  Vivakananda  himself,  in  addressing  The  Tantras. 
Bengalis  in  Calcutta,  characterized  the  Vamachara 
Tantras  thus:  "Give  up  this  filthy  Vamachara 
that  is  killing  your  country.  .  .  .  When  I  enter 
my  own  country  (meaning  Bengal),  with  all  its 
boast  of  culture,  it  is  a  most  disgraceful,  hellish 
place  I  find,  when  I  see  how  much  the  Vamachara 
has  entered  our  society.  These  Vamachara  sects 
are  honeycombing  our  society  in  Bengal,  and  it 
is  those  who  carry  on  the  most  horrible  debauchery 
at  night   who    in   the    day  time   come    out    and 


24        THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

preach  most  loudly  about  'achara'  (conduct), 
and  in  this  way  they  are  backed  by  the  most 
dreadful  books.  They  are  ordered  by  the  books 
to  do  these  things.  You  know  it  who  are  in 
Bengal.  The  Bengali  Sastras  are  the  Vamachara 
Tantras.  They  are  published  by  the  cart  loads, 
and  poison  the  minds  of  your  children  instead  of 
teaching  them  your  Srutis  (/.  ^.,  the  Vedas).  Do 
you  not  feel,  fathers  of  Calcutta,  a  shame  that 
such  horrible  stuff  as  these  Vamachara  Tantras, 
with  translations,  too,  should  be  put  into  the 
hands  of  your  children,  boys  and  girls,  and  their 
minds  poisoned,  and  that  they  should  be  brought 
up  with  the  idea  that  these  are  the  Sastras  of  the 
Hindus?"  (^^Colombo  to  Almora,"  p.  260. 
Quoted  in  ''The  Indian  Standard,"  March  16, 
1901,  p.  7.)  And  it  is  the  Tantras,  not  all  of 
which  we  may  be  thankful  are  immoral  or  vile, 
that  have  shaped  popular  Hinduism.  ''Apart 
from  the  Srouta  and  Smarta  rituals,"  said 
Vivakananda,  "all  the  forms  of  the  popular  reli- 
gion from  the  Himalayas  to  Cape  Comorin  have 
been  taken  from  the  Tantras,  and  they  direct  the 
worship  of  the  Saktas,  the  Saivas,  the  Vaishnavas, 
and  all  others."  Of  popular  Hinduism  then  it 
can  only  be  said  that  it  is  idolatry  and  demon 
worship,  and  that  in  its  lower  forms  it  is  the 
uncleanness  against  which  Christianity  has  ever 
been  so  uncompromising,  and  against  which  are 
barred  forever  the  gates  of  that  City  wherein 
there  shall  in  no  wise  enter  anything  unclean,  or 
he  that  maketh  an  abomination  and  a  lie. 


HINDUISM  25 

3.  Reformed  Hinduism.  Again  and  again  in  Reformed 
the  history  of  India,  when  polytheistic  and  panthe-  Hinduism, 
istic  notions  have  been  carried  to  extremes,  ,, 
reformers  have  arisen  to  recall  the  people  to  " 
simple  monotheism.  The  early  Vaishnava 
Reformers  of  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  fifteenth  and 
sixteenth  centuries  taught  "the  existence  of  one 
supreme  personal  God  of  infinite  power,  wisdom 
and  goodness,  the  Maker  and  Preserver  of  all 
things,  a  God  whom  they  called  Vishnu,  and 
whom  they  believed  to  be  distinct  from  the 
human  soul  and  the  material  world."  The 
Vaishnava  worship  has  led  almost  necessarily  to 
corruption,  however.  Its  doctrine  of  avatars  and 
the  character  of  the  deity  who  was  incarnate  in 
them  were  not  helpful,  and  "viler  practices  as  a 
part  of  religion  have  flourished  among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Vishnu  than  among  almost  any  other 
class  of  religionists."  In  the  sixteenth  century 
a  great  monotheistic  reaction  came  under  the 
leadership  of  Kabir.  His  negative  principles 
were  clear  and  useful.  He  "discouraged  the 
worship  of  all  the  Hindu  gods  and  also  the 
observance  of  Hindu  rites  and  ceremonies  of 
every  description,  whether  orthodox  or  schismat- 
ical, "  but  like  the  modern  Arya  Samaj  and  the 
Behais  in  Persia,  his  followers  were  allowed  to 
refrain  from  acting  upon  their  principles  when  it 
was  ?:dvantageous  to  do  so.  Kabir,  moreover, 
was  very  indefinite  in  his  positive  declarations  of 
faith.     After  Kabir  came  the  Sikh  reform  under 


26        THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

Nanak,  who,  like  Kabir,  had  been  undoubtedly 
influenced  by  the  stern  monotheism  of  the  Moham- 
medans, and  both  he  and  Kabir  strove  to  fuse 
Hindus  and  Moslems  in  a  common  belief  in  one 
only  God.  This  effort  naturally  failed,  and 
Govind  made  it  finally  impossible  when  he  turned 
the  Sikh  sect  into  a  nation,  and  established  a 
political  dominion,  vyrested  from  Islam,  in  the 
Punjab. 

These  movements  did  not  affect  Bengal,  in 
which  lived  the  three  great  leaders  of  the  Reform 
Movement  of  the  last  century.  Their  movement 
has  its  logical  connection,  however,  with  the 
same  spirit  of  reaction  from  popular  orthodox 
Hinduism  to  a  purer  faith  which  found  expression 
in  Kabir  and  Nanak,  for  in  the  sixteenth  century 
the  Vaishnava  movement  was  inaugurated  in 
Bengal  by  Chaitanya,  a  singularly  attractive 
character,  w^ho  went  about  preaching  salvation 
by  faith.  It  was  the  analogue  of  Luther's 
Reformation.  He  professed  to  oppose  the 
Saktism  that  was  then  prevalent  in  Bengal,  and 
he  taught  devotion  of  the  human  soul  to  Vishnu, 
symbolized  under  the  figure  of  human  love. 
That  and  the  licentious  antinomianism,  which 
was  the  inevitable  consequence  of  his  unbalanced 
doctrine,  led  to  great  degeneracy  in  some  of  the 
Vaishnava  sects  of  Bengal.  But  his  reform 
remained  as  a  memory,  at  least,  of  the  effort  of 
an  earnest  man  to  get  back  of  the  idols  and  the 
form  of  his  faith  to  the  one  living  God. 


HINDUISM  "11 

Ram  Mohun  Roy  was  the  founder  of  modern  Ram  MoKun 
religious  reform  in  India.  He  was  born  in  1772,  Roy. 
and  was  brought  up  in  one  of  these  Vaishnava  "^ 
sects  in  Bengal.  Each  morning  he  was  accus- 
tomed to  read  a  chapter  in  the  Bhagavata  Purana, 
the  Vaishnava  Bible,  and  being  a  lad  of  honest 
and  careful  mind,  he  found  himself  unable  to 
accept  it,  and  was  led  to  turn  back  to  the  Vedic 
system — especially  as  expressed  in  the  Ujoani shads. 
He  studied  Sanskrit,  Arabic  and  Hebrew  so  as  to 
compare  the  Hindu,  Moslem  and  Christian  Scrip- 
tures. Monier  Williams  says  of  him  that  he 
'^was  the  first  earnest-minded  investigator  of  the 
science  of  religion  that  the  world  has  produced.  • 
From  his  earliest  years  he  displayed  an  eagerness 
to  become  an  unbiased  student  of  all  the  religions 
of  the  globe.  His  sole  aim  in  such  studies  was 
to  seek  out  religious  truth  for  himself  with  per- 
fect fairness  and  impartiality."  These  studies 
made  him  more  and  more  dissatisfied  with  the 
idolatry  and  social  customs  of  Hinduism. 

And  the  situation  at  the  time  in  Bengal  was 
such  as  to  awaken  the  concern  of  such  an  honest 
and  earnest  man.  Immorality  and  corruption 
were  general  and  revolting.  Socially  the  condi- 
tions were  equally  bad.  The  caste  system  was 
rigid  as  stone.  ''The  horrible  rites  of  suttee  and 
infanticide  were  the  order  of  the  day.  There 
were  indeed  many  instances  of  true  suttees  .  .  . 
but  it  should  not  therefore  be  forgotten  that  in  a 
great  many  instances  the  suttee  was  the  victim  of 


28         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

her  greedy  relatives,  and  in  more,  of  rash  words 
spoken  in  the  first  fit  of  grief,  and  of  the  vanity 
of  her  kindred  who  considered  her  shrinking  from 
the  first  resolve  an  indelible  disgrace."  ''Many 
a  horrible  murder  was  thus  committed,  the  cries 
and  shrieks  of  the  poor  suttee  being  drowned  by 
the  sounds  of  tom-toms,  and  her  struggles  made 
powerless  by  her  being  pressed  down  with  bam- 
boos. The  condition  of  the  Hindu  female  in 
those  days  was  truly  pitiable.  Education  among 
females  was  unknown.  Kulinism,  polygamy  and 
everyday  oppression  made  the  life  of  the  Hindu 
female  unbearable.  Hindu  society,  with  caste, 
polygamy,  Kulinism,  suttee,  infanticide,  and 
other  evils,  was  rotten  to  its  core.  Morality  was 
at  a  very  low  ebb.  Men  spent  their  time  in  vice 
and  idleness,  and  in  social  broils  and  party 
quarrels.  As  to  education  among  the  people,  of 
what  even  the  Muktubs  could  impart  there  was 
little.  What  little  learning  there  was  was  confined 
to  a  few  Brahmans,  and  it  was  in  the  main  a  vain 
and  useless  learning.  Ignorance  and  superstition 
reigned  supreme  over  the  length  and  breadth  of 
the  country.  There  was  darkness  over  the  land, 
and  no  man  knew  when  it  would  be  dispelled." 
(Introduction  to  Ram  Mohun  Roy's  English 
Works,  Vol.  I,  pp.  vi,  vii.) 

Ram  Mohun  Roy  felt  the  shame  of  all  this. 
He  felt  also  the  deepening  influence  of  Western 
civilization  as  it  was  represented  in  the  British 
Government  in  India  and   in  the  Western  educa- 


HINDUISM  29 

tlon  which  was  beginning  to  be  offered  to  the 
people.  The  movement  which  he  began  sprang 
even  at  the  outset  from,  and  as  years  went  by 
became  ahnbst  the  direct  product  of,  the  Innu- 
merable dissolving  agencies  which  Christian 
Government  and  Christian  religion  introduced 
into  India.  Ram  Mohun  Roy  began  by  attacking 
idolatry  on  the  ground  that  it  was  not  sanctioned 
by  the  Vedas.  On  the  same  ground  he  supported  | 
the  movement  against  widow  burning.  On  caste 
he  compromised.  He  strongly  supported  Alex- 
ander Duff  In  establishing  his  educational  work, 
and  he  defended  its  Christian  basis,  and  wrote  a 
book  on  ^'The  Precepts  of  Jesus,  the  Guide  to 
Peace  and  Happiness."  In  a  letter  prefixed  to 
one  of  his  later  works  he  says,  ''The  consequence 
of  my  long  and  uninterrupted  researches  into  reli-  ^ 
gious  truth  has  been  that  I  have  found  the  i 
doctrines  of  Christ  more  conducive  to  moral 
principles  and  better  adapted  for  the  use  of 
rational  beings  than  any  other  which  have  come 
to  my  knowledge." 

The  most  notable  step  taken  by  Ram  Mohun  Brahmo 
Roy  was  the  organization  in  Calcutta,  in  1830,  Samaj. 
of  the  Brahma  Sabha,  or  Society  of  Brahma,  the 
one  self-existent  God  of  Hinduism.  This  was 
not  intended  to  be  a  new  sect  or  church,  but 
simply  a  place  of  pure  monotheistic  worship. 
"The  trust  deed  of  the  building,"  which  was 
endowed,  ''laid  down  that  It  was  to  be  used  as  a 


30        THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

place  of  meeting  for  the  worship  of  the  Eternal, 
Unsearchable  and  Immutable  Being  who  is  the 
Author  and  Preserver  of  the  Universe;  that  no 
graven  image,  statue  or  sculpture,  carving,  paint- 
ing, picture,  portrait,  or  likeness  of  anything 
shall  be  admitted  within  the  building;  that  no 
sacrifices  shall  be  offered  there;  that  nothing 
recognized  as  an  object  of  worship  by  other  men 
should  be  spoken  of  contemptuously  there;  and 
that  no  sermon  be  delivered  but  such  as  would 
have  a  tendency  to  promote  piety,  morality  and 
charity."  This  was  the  first  Theistic  Church 
planted  in  India,  and  in  it  for  the  first  time 
Hindus  united  in  public  worship  and  prayer.  It 
was  the  first  sign  of  ''the  greatest  change  that  has 
ever  passed  over  the  Hindu  mind." 
Debendranatk  After  Ram  Mohun  Roy's  death  in  England, 
Tagore.  when   he  was   on  a  visit,  the   Brahma  Sabha   or 

Brahmo  Samaj,  as  it  came  to  be  called,  became 
Hinduized  for  a  time,  and  then  was  revivified 
under  the  influence  of  Debendranath  Tagore,  a 
wealthy  friend  of  Ram  Mohun  Roy,  who  had 
received  a  skeptical  education  and  led  a  dissolute 
life,  but  had  then  passed  through  a  real  re- 
ligious experience  and  taken  hold  of  the 
Brahmo  Samaj,  which  was  disorganized  and 
impotent,  and  who  gave  it  definiteness  of  form 
and  a  positive  foundation  in  the  Brahmic  Cov- 
enant, which  he  made  the  basis  of  member- 
ship:— 


HINDUISM  Bl 

Om 
I  herewith  embrace  the  Brahmic  faith. 

1st  Vow.  I  will  worship,  through  love  of  Him  and 
performance  of  the  works  He  loveth,  God  the  Creator, 
the  Preserver,  and  the  Destroyer,  the  Giver  of  Salva- 
tion, the  Omniscient,  the  Omnipresent,  the  Blissful,  the 
Good,  the  Formless,  the  One  without  a  second. 

2d  Vow.  I  will  worship  no  created  object  as  the 
Creator. 

3d  Vow.  Except  the  day  of  sickness  or  of  tribulation, 
every  day,  the  mind  being  undisturbed,  I  will  engage  it 
with  love  and  veneration  in  God. 

4th  Vow.     I  will  exert  to  perform  righteous  deeds. 

5th  Vow.  I  will  be  careful  to  abstain  from  vicious 
deeds. 

6th  Vow.  If  through  the  influence  of  passion,  I  com- 
mit any  vice,  then  wishing  redemption  from  it,  I  will 
make  myself  cautious  not  to  do  it  again. 

7th  Vow.  Every  year  and  on  the  occasion  of  every 
happy  domestic  event  of  mine,  I  will  bestow  gifts  upon 
the  Brahmo  Samaj. 

Grant  me,  O  God,  power  to  observe  the  duties  of  this 
great  faith. 

Om 
One  only  without  a  second. 

Under  Debendranath  the  Christian  element  fell 
into  the  background,  and  Christ's  name  was 
debarred  on  the  ground  that  some  people  called 
him  God.  The  emphasis  laid  by  Ram  Mohun 
Roy  on  the  Upanishads  was  transferred  to  the 
Vedic  hymns,  which  were  made  the  real  authori- 
tative Scripture.  But  this  led  to  a  further  step. 
The  Vedic  hymns  themselves,  it  was  soon  felt, 
were  not  a  valid  authority,  and  the  Samaj  fell 
back  on  external  nature  and  internal  intuition. 


32        THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

The  next  stage  in  the  development  was  taken 
by  Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  who,  coming  into  the 
leadership  of  the  Samaj  about  1860,  dropped 
nature,  rested  boldly  on  intuition  as  the  only  basis 
of  authority,  and  advanced  courageously  to  break 
with  caste  and  with  the  Hindu  restraints  upon 
woman.  A  rupture  in  the  Samaj  resulted,  and 
Keshub  founded  a  vigorous  new  society  practic- 
ally on  the  basis  of  Unitarian  Christianity.  The 
following  was  the  substance  of  the  system  of 
doctrine  of  the  new  Brahmo  Samaj : — 

God  is  the  first  cause  of  the  universe.  By  His  will 
He  created  all  objects  out  of  nothing,  and  continually 
upholds  them.  He  is  spirit,  not  matter.  He  is  per- 
fect, infinite,  all  merciful,  all  holy.  He  is  our  Father, 
Preserver,  Master,  King  and  Saviour. 

The  soul  is  immortal.  Death  is  only  the  dissolution 
of  the  body.  There  is  no  new  birth  on  earth  after 
death;  the  future  life  is  a  continuation  and  development 
of  the  present  life.  The  men  that  now  live  are  the 
embryos  of  the  men  that  are  to  be. 

The  true  Scriptures  are  two — the  volume  of  nature 
and  the  natural  intuitions  implanted  in  the  mind.  The 
wisdom,  power  and  mercy  of  the  Creator  are  written 
on  the  universe.  All  ideas  about  immortality  and 
morality  are  primary  convictions  rooted  in  the  constitu- 
tion of  man. 

God  Himself  never  becomes  man  by  putting  on  a 
human  body.  His  divinity  dwells  in  every  man,  and  is 
displayed  more  vividly  in  some ;  as  in  Moses,  Jesus 
Christ,  Mohammed,  Nanak,  Chaitanja,  and  some  other 
great  teachers  who  appeared  at  special  times  and  con- 
ferred vast  benefits  on  the  world.  They  are  entitled  to 
universal  gratitude  and  love. 


HINDUISM  33 

The  Brahma  religion  is  distinct  from  all  other  systems 
of  religion  ;  jet  it  is  the  essence  of  all.  It  is  not  hostile 
to  other  creeds.  What  is  true  in  them  it  accepts,  It  is 
based  on  the  constitution  of  man  and  is,  therefore, 
eternal  and  universal.  It  is  not  confined  to  age  or 
country. 

All  mankind  are  of  one  brotherhood.  The  Brahma 
religion  recognizes  no  distinction  between  high  and  low- 
caste.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  religion  to  bind  all  mankind 
into  one  family. 

Duties  are  of  four  kinds  :  (1)  Duties  towards  God — 
such    as    belief    in    Him,    love,    worship    and    service; 

(2)  Duties  towards  self — such  as  preservation  of  bodily 
health,  acquisition  of  knowledge,  sanctification  of  soul ; 

(3)  Duties    towards    others — such   as   veracity,    justice, 
gratitude,  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  all  mankind ; 

(4)  Duties  towards  animals  and  inferior  creatures — such 
as  kind  treatment. 

Every  sinner  must  suffer  the  consequences  of  his  own 
sins  sooner  or  later,  in  this  world  or  the  next.  Man 
must  labor  after  holiness  by  the  worship  of  God,  by 
subjugation  of  the  passions,  by  repentance,  by  the  study 
of  nature  and  of  good  books,  by  good  company  and  by 
solitary  contemplation.  These  will  lead  through  the 
action  of  God's  grace  to  salvation. 

Salvation  is  a  deliverance  of  the  soul  from  the  root 
of  corruption  and  moral  disease,  and  its  perpetual 
growth  in  purity.  Such  growth  continues  through  all 
eternity,  and  the  soul  becomes  more  and  more  godly 
and  happy  in  Him  who  is  the  fountain  of  infinite  holi- 
ness and  joy.  The  companionship  of  God  is  the  Indian 
Theists'  heaven. 

There  were  times  in  the  next  twenty  years 
when  it  seemed  that  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  might 
come  clearly  out  into  the  Christian  faith,  but 
there  were  weaknesses  in  the  man  and  fundamen- 


34         THE   LIGHT   OF   THE    WORLD 

tal  defects  in  his  doctrine,  and  he  passed  away  a 
stranger  to  the  truths  to  which  he  had  come  so 
near.  In  his  last  years  he  played  into  the  hands 
of  the  champions  of  orthodox  Hinduism,  with  all 
its  idolatries  and  corruptions;  but  it  is  a  pleasant 
thing  that  his  final  public  address,  "Asia's 
Message  to  Europe,"  in  1883,  with  much  folly, 
yet  included  words  like  these:  "All  India  must 
believe  that  Christ  is  the  Son  of  God.  Nay,  more 
than  this,  I  will  make  myself  bold  to  prophesy  all 
India  will  one  day  acknowledge  Jesus  Christ  as 
the  atonement,  the  universal  atonement  for  all 
mankind.  .  .  .  He  has  given  His  precious  blood 
for  all  of  us,  whether  we  believe  it  or  not.  .  .  . 
He  has  done  His  work,  let  us  do  ours.  Let  us 
believe  that  He  has  died  for  you  and  me,  and  the 
atonement  on  our  side  is  completed.  Fellow 
countrymen,  be  ye  reconciled  through  Him!" 
The  truth  of  God  is  in  these  words,  whether  or 
no  Keshub  Chunder  Sen  saw  it  w^ith  clear  eyes 
and  embraced  it  with  the  simple  heart  of  true 
faith.  And  however  weak  he  showed  himself, 
and  whatever  harm  he  wrought,  no  man  without 
honesty  and  earnestness  in  his  heart  could  break 
with  his  ancestral  faith  as  he  did  and  struggle  as 
he  struggled  to  persuade  his  countrymen  to  take  a 
better  w^ay  to  God  than  that  which  leads  to  the 
temple   and  the  idols   made  with  men's  hands. 

The  Brahmo  Samaj  was  the  result  of  the 
impact  of  Christianity  on  Hinduism.  It  was 
truthfully  called  a  "half  way  house"  between  the 


HINDUISM  35 

two    religions.      It    has    now   quite    lost    its    im- 
portance as  a  separate  movement,  but  it  is  a  vivid 
illustration  of  what  is  taking  place  now  inside  of 
Hinduism.      Some  of  those  who  joined  the  Samaj 
passed  forward   into  the  Christian  faith.      But  on 
the  other  side,  Hinduism  perceived   that    it   must 
again  modify    itself  to  meet   the  new  conditions, 
and   to-day   there  are  only  a   few   Samaj es  which 
represent  any  real  breach  with  Hinduism.      Some 
have   swung  back    to   the    Vedanta,    and     inside 
Hinduism  a  place   has   been   made   for  men   who      < 
wish    to    take    the    religious    and    philosophical      r 
attitude  of  the  earlier   Brahmo   Samaj,  and  who     ! 
can  now  do  so  without  leaving  the  expansive  and     ' 
ever  adaptive  system  of  their  ancestors. 

The  reform  movement  in  Northern  India  took  a  Arya 
very  different  form  from  that  taken  in  Bengal.  Samaj. 
In  the  north  the  reform  society  has  been  the  Arya 
Samaj,  founded  by  Dayanand  Saraswati,  the  son 
of  a  Gujarati  Brahman,  who  was  born  in  1825, 
and  becoming  dissatisfied  with  popular  idolatr}-, 
left  his  father's  home  and  wandered  over  Northern 
India  as  a  fakir,  seeking  knowledge  and  sal- 
vation. He  became  increasingly  convinced  that 
the  true  hope  for  his  countrymen  lay  in  a  return 
to  the  teachings  of  the  Vedas,  and  some  time 
before  1860  he  "came  to  a  strong  determination 
to  give  his  life  fully  to  the  restoration  of  his 
countrymen  to  their  former  state  of  happiness  and 
prosperity."  He  soon  began  disputations  with 
the  Hindu  pundits,  seeking  "to  persuade  them  to 


36         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

abandon  their  old  teaching,  accept  nothing  but 
the  Vedas,  and  join  him  in  leading  their  country- 
men back  to  their  former  state."  Failing  to 
persuade  the  pundits,  and  also  failing  of  success 
in  his  next  plan  of  establishing  schools  where  the 
pupils  were  supported  and  taught  gratuitously, 
he  adopted  the  plan  of  traveling  about,  teaching 
and  establishing  Samajes.  He  died  in  Rajputana 
in  1882.  The  principles  of  the  Arya  Samaj,  as 
set  forth  in  the  Arya  catechisms  and  tracts,  are  as 
follows : — 

1.  God  is  the  Fountain  of  all  true  knowledge,  and 
the  primeval  Cause  of  all  things  knowable. 

2.  Worship  is  alone  due  to  God  Who  is  All-true, 
All-knowledge,  All-beatitude,  Incorporeal,  Almighty, 
Just,  Merciful,  Unbegotten,  Infinite,  Unchangeable, 
without  a  Beginning,  Incomparable,  the  Support  and 
the  Lord  of  all.  All-pervading,  Omniscient,  Imperisha- 
ble, Immortal,  Exempt  from  fear.  Eternal,  Holy  and  the 
Cause  of  the  universe. 

3.  The  Vedas  are  the  Books  of  true  knowledge,  and 
it  is  the  paramount  duty  of  every  Arya  to  read  or  hear 
them  read ;  to  teach  and  preach  them  to  others. 

4.  An  Arya  should  always  be  ready  to  accept  truth 
and  renounce  untruth  when  discovered. 

5.  Truth  arrived  at,  after  consummate  deliberation, 
should  be  his  guiding  principle  in  all  actions. 

6.  The  primary  object  of  the  Samaj  is  to  do  good  to 
the  world  by  improving  the  physical,  intellectual,  spirit- 
ual, moral  and  social  condition  of  mankind. 

7.  Due  love  for  all  and  appreciation  of  Justice,  an 
Arya  should  manifest   in  his   behavior   towards   others. 

8.  He  should  endeavor  to  diffuse  knowledge  and  dis- 
pel ignorance. 


HINDUISM  67 

9.    He  should  not   be  content  with  his  own  improve- 
ment^ but  look  for  it  in  others. 

10.  In  matters  which  affect  the  general  social  well- 
being  of  our  race  he  ought  to  discard  all  difference  and 
not  allow  his  individuality  to  interfere,  but  in  strictly 
personal  matters  every  one  may  have  his  own  way. 

The  sole  authority  with  the  Aryas  is  the 
Vedas.  All  the  problems  of  life,  they  hold,  are 
solved  by  the  Vedas,  and  by  the  Vedas  all  modern 
discoveries  and  the  inventions  of  modern  science 
have  been  anticipated.  The  Aryas  observe  caste, 
but  denounce  it;  they  conform  to  orthodox  Hindu 
ceremonies  of  marriage  and  burials,  but  inveigh 
against  them.  They  have  been  bitterly  anti- 
Christian  and  anti-Brahmo,  very  aggressive  in 
their  propaganda,  .and  very  nationalistic.  Their 
revolt  in  principle  against  orthodox  Hinduism, 
however  inconsistent  their  practice,  was  one  more 
distinct  fruit  of  Christian  influence  upon  India. 
For  the  present  they  have  retreated  to  the  Vedas 
as  the  one  source  of  spiritual  truth,  and  as  essen- 
tial to  the  development  of  Hindu  nationality. 
But  they  will  inevitably  learn,  as  the  Brahmos 
learned,  that  the  Vedas  cannot  satisfy,  and  they 
are  already  learning  that  sedition  is  not  nation- 
alism. *'One  notable  outcome  of  the  unrest  in 
India,"  writes  a  thoughtful  missionary,  "is  that 
the  active  opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Arya 
Samaj  has  in  great  measure  ceased.  This  is  no 
doubt  due  in  some  measure  to  the  attitude  of  the 
government     towards    the     Arya    Samaj,    whose 


38 


THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


leaders  have  been  detected  as  also  leaders  of  the 
seditiop  movement  in  the  Punjab.  But  that  is 
not  the  only  reason.  There  have  been  many  in 
the  Arya  Samaj  who  are  sincere  in  their  effort  to 
re-establish  the  old  Hindu  faith.  The  more  such 
men  strive  to  find  rest  in  the  Vedas  the  more 
surely  will  they  fail.  Some  of  these  have  come 
out  and  have  confessed  that  rest  can  only  be  found 
in  Jesus  Christ.  We  may,  therefore,  anticipate 
the  downfall  of  the  Arya  Samaj  movement  as  a 
religious  movement,  and  that  more  members  will 
come  over  to  the  Christian  ranks." 

These  organized  movements  of  reform  are  the 
fruit  of  Christianity.  Mr.  Madhava  Rao,  C.I.E., 
on  departing  from  Mysore  in  1904  to  become 
Dewan  of  Travancore,  said  to  the  missionaries 
of  the  province  who  had  come   to  say  good-by: — 

Gentlemen,  you  know  well  how  great  is  my  admira- 
tion for  the  English  civilization,  which  has  done  so 
much  for  India.  It  is  the  fashion  sometimes  with  some 
of  our  young  men,  and  I  think  they  are  to  some'  extent 
right,  to  say  that  everything  that  Christianity  may  bring 


books.  But  they  forget  that  our  religion  had  lost  much 
of  its  vitality  "and  had  failed  to  influence  conduct  either 
personally,  socially  or  politically.  It  is  to  the  impact 
of  fresh  civilization,  and  the  operation  of  vivifying  and 
vigorous  ideas,  that  we  owe  the  reawakening  that  is  to 
be  found  from  one  end  of  India  to  another.  It  is  to 
Christian  influences  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  revival 
of  the  Hindu  religion  in  the  form  of  the  Brahmo  Samaj, 
and  there  have  been  other  revivals  also  more  or  less 
over  the  country.     Even  as  regards  the  European  civili- 


HINDUISM  39 

zation  and  progress,  it  is,  I  believe,  no  less  an  authority 
than  Benjamin  Kidd,  who  says  that  the  impelling  force 
of  the  modern  progress  is  to  be  found  in  the  cardinal 
principles  of  Christianity.  As  I  said  before,  as  far  as 
India  is  concerned,  we  should  have  been  moving  in  the 
old  lines  and  in  the  old  grooves  but  for  the  new  ideas 
brought  by  the  missionaries.  I  will  instance  only  a  few 
points  regarding  which  our  conceptions  have  been  recast 
and  elevated  in  the  light  of  the  new  religion.  At  least 
these  ideas  could  not  have  been  got  in  such  an  emphatic 
form  from  our  own  religion  and  our  own  past  civiliza- 
tion. Where  can  we  find  ideas  about  the  sanctity  of 
human  life,  abovit  the  dignity  of  man,  and  about  equality 
of  all  men  before  the  Law  but  in  the  Christian  Scriptures, 
made  familiar  to  us  in  the  English  Laws  under  which  we 
live  and  in  the  philosophy  and  poetry  of  the  West? 
Another  idea  that  we  owe  to  Christianity  is  the  respect 
due  to  women.  For  all  these  we  owe  a  debt  of  grati- 
tude to  the  missionaries.  They  have  been  the  pioneers 
of  education  in  this  country.  They  have  brought  us 
fresh  ideas,  they  have  given  us  higher  conceptions  of 
life,  and  our  duties  and  responibilities  as  citizens  and  as 
men.  It  only  remains  for  me  to  wish  every  success  to 
the  missionaries  in  the  noble  and  godly  labors  in  the 
cause  of   moral  and  spiritual  regeneration  of   this  land. 

But  the  organized  reform  movements  represent   Christianity'a 
but  a  small  part  of  the   influence  of  Christianity   Pervasive 
upon  India's  religious  thought  and  life.      Entirely   Influence, 
new   moral    and   spiritual  ideals   are   penetrating 
the  ancient  forms.      The  very  names  of  old  Hindu 
gods   are    falling   into   disuse,  and   a    completely 
new  idea  of  God  is  coming  to   India.      ''Into  the 
midst  of   the  pantheism  of   ages   there  has  slowly 
penetrated,    through    the    medium    of     Christian 
teaching,  the  idea  of  a  personal    and   holy    God, 


40        THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

the  foundation  truth  of  all  real  religion." 
(Slater,  "The  Higher  Hinduism,"  p.  18.)  Islam 
did  not  work  such  a  change  in  the  religious 
thought  of  India.  With  every  practical  advantage, 
and  v^ith  an  opportunity  of  a  thousand  years, 
Islam  had  made  less  impression  on  the  religious 
thought  of  Hinduism  than  Christianity  has  made 
in  three  generations.  Intelligent  Hindus  now 
think  of  their  own  religions  in  terms  and  with 
understandings  of  words  which  were  utterly 
unknown  to  their  fathers,  and  which  they  owe  to 
Christianity  alone.  (Morrison,  "New  Ideas  in 
India.")  The  great  intellectual  movement  of  the 
present  day  in  India,  not  excepting  the  revived 
Vedanta,  is  the  effort  to  read  Christianity  into 
Hinduism,  and  to  gather  the  national  fruitage  of 
Christianity  without  the  revolution  of  personal 
regeneration  or  the  disruption  of  national  conver- 
sion. Was  there  ever  a  more  wonderful  testimony 
to  the  superiority  of  Christianity,  or  a  more 
appealing  confession  of  need?  For,  coming  so 
far,  India  must  come  farther.  "All  over  India," 
said  Dr.  Charles  Cuthbert  Hall  when  he  returned 
from  India  the  last  time,  "are  men  and  women 
unprepared  to  identify  themselves  with  any  Chris- 
tian denomination  to  whom  the  popular  forms  of 
the  ancient  faith  have  become  inadequate,  if  not 
distasteful,  and  for  whom  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  distinctive  truths  connected  with 
that  name  for  the  redemption  of  individuals  and 
the  reconstruction  of  the  social  order  are  taking 
on  new  attractiveness  and  value." 


HINDUISM  41 

These  forms  of  religion  which  Christianity  Hinduism 
meets  to-day  in  India  all  show  the  moral  and  Insufficient, 
social  insufficiency  of  Hinduism.  ''A  religious 
system,"  said  the  Report  of  Commission  IV  on 
The  Missionary  Message  in  Relation  to  Non- 
Christian  Religions,  at  the  Edinburgh  Confer- 
ence, ^'must  be  judged  by  its  moral  and  social 
results.  This  is  an  axiom  for  all  who  believe 
that  religion  is  the  fundamental  thing  in  human 
nature.  'The  tree  is  known  by  its  fruits.'  This 
is  true  everywhere,  but  it  is  especially  true  of 
India  where  the  problems  of  religion  have  for 
thousands  of  years  been  the  supreme  concern  of 
the  greatest  minds.  Our  correspondents  trace  the 
manifold  ills  of  Indian  life,  the  immense  outgrowth 
of  mendicant  asceticism,  the  petrification  of 
society  in  the  caste  system,  the  abuse  of  child- 
marriage,  and  the  manifold  hardships  of  widow- 
hood to  the  same  deep  root  as  that  which  is 
manifest  in  all  the  infamies  of  popular  idolatry — 
the  defective  conception  of  God,  the  turning  away 
of  the  human  heart  from  its  Father  in  mistrust 
and  fear,  the  unbelief  which  is  the  root  of  all  sin. 
The  pathological  analysis  is  convincing  and 
complete." 

The  evidence  is  absolute  against  popular  Hin- 
duism.     As  Bishop  Caldwell  says: — 

The  duties  of  life  are  never  inculcated  in  any  Hindu 
temple.  The  discharge  of  those  duties  is  never  pre- 
sented as  enjoined  by  the  gods,  nor  are  any  prayers  ever 
offered  in  any  temple    for  help  to  enable  the  worshipers 


42         THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

to  discharge  those  duties  aright.  .  .  .  Hence  we  often 
see  religion  going  in  the  one  direction  and  morality  in 
another.  We  meet  with  a  moral  Hindu  who  has  broken 
altogether  awaj  from  religion  ;  and  what  is  still  more 
common,  jet  still  more  extraordinary,  we  meet  with  a 
devout  Hindu  who  lives  a  flagrantly  immoral  life.  In 
the  latter  case,  no  person  sees  any  inconsistency  between 
the  immorality  and  the  devoutness. 

And  not  only  is  popular  Hinduism  morally  and 
socially  insufficient,  but  so  also  is  the  higher 
Hinduism,  and  its  whole  present  attitude  is  a 
confession  of  this.  ^'If  it  looks  to  the  revival  of 
the  national  faith  in  regard  to  religion,  it  yet 
looks  to  the  West  for  its  social  and  political 
ideals.  In  this  strange  divergence  it  confesses  its 
utter  weakness  as  a  social  force;  that  there  is 
nothing  in  its  ancient  institutions  to  revive  which 
will  fit  the  nation  for  its  keen  struggle  for  exist- 
ence ;  but  that  for  the  elaboration  of  a  better  order 
of  society  it  must  look  outside  itself.  This  sev- 
erance of  religion  from  sociology,  this  failure  of 
Hinduism  as  a  reforming  agency,  a  regenerator 
of  society,  an  instrument  of  progress,  robs  it  of 
half  its  strength,  and  encourages  the  Christian 
advocate  to  hope  that,  as  the  thoughtful  men  of 
India  come  to  study  the  sociological  results  of 
Christ's  religion  in  the  West,  and  see  it  to  be  the 
pioneer  of  all  true  progress,  the  only  effective 
agency  in  destroying  the  old  evils,  they  may  be 
led  to  pay  a  deeper  respect  to  its  underlying  and 
distinctive  truths."  (Slater,  ^'The  Higher  Hin- 
duism,"  pp.  15,  16.) 


HINDUISM  43 

It  will  suffice  to  indicate  four  of  the  fundamen-   Deficiencies  of 
tal  deficiencies  of  Hinduism: —  Hinduism. 

1.  Hinduism  rests  on  a  false  social  principle,  the  Caste, 
principle  not  of  brotherhood  and  of  equality,  but 
of  caste.  This  social  principle  is  the  essential, 
unifying  principle  of  Hinduism.  As  Guru 
Prasad  Sen  says  in  his  "Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Hinduism,"  "Hinduism  is  not,  and  has 
never  been,  a  religious  organization.  It  is  a 
pure  social  system,  imposing  on  those  who  are 
Hindus  the  observance  of  certain  social  forms, 
and  not  the  profession  of  particular  religious 
belief^  It  is  perfectly  optional  with  a  Hindu  to 
choose  from  any  one  of  the  different  religious 
creeds  with  which  the  Sastras  abound;  he  may 
choose  to  have  a  faith  and  a  creed,  if  he  wants  a 
creed,  or  to  do  without  one;  he  may  be  an 
atheist,  a  deist,  a  monotheist,  or  a  polytheist,  a 
believer  in  the  Vedas  or  Sastras,  or  a  skeptic  as 
regards  their  authority,  and  his  position  as  a 
Hindu  cannot  be  questioned  by  anybody  because 
of  his  beliefs  or  unbeliefs,  so  long  as  he  conforms 
to  social  rules.'*  These  social  rules  cover  the 
whole  life  of  the  people  and  culminate  in  caste 
and  the  Hindu  status  of  woman.  As  to  caste, 
whatever  may  be  said  in  its  behalf  or  of  its  past 
history,  let  one  speak  whose  authority  on  the  sub- 
ject cannot  be  gainsaid.  His  Highness  the  Gaek- 
war  of  Baroda: — 

The  evils  of  caste  cover  the   whole   range   of  social 
life.     It  hampers  the  life  of  the  individual  with  a  vast 


44         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

number  of  petty  rules  and  observances  which  have  no 
meaning.  It  cripples  him  in  his  relations  with  his 
family,  in  his  marriage,  in  the  education  of  his  chil- 
dren, and  especially  in  his  life.  It  weakens  the  eco- 
nomic position  by  attempting  to  confine  him  to  particular 
trades,  by  preventing  him  from  learning  the  culture  of 
the  West,  and  by  giving  him  an  exaggerated  view  of  his 
knowledge  and  importance.  It  cripples  his  professional 
life  by  increasing  distrust,  treachery  and  jealousy, 
hampering  a  free  use  of  others'  abilities,  and  ruins  his 
social  life  by  increasing  exclusiveness,  restricting  the 
opportunities  of  social  intercourse  and  preventing  that 
intellectual  development  on  which  the  prosperity  of  any 
class  most  depends.  In  the  wider  spheres  of  life,  in 
municipal  or  local  affairs,  it  destroys  all  hope  of  local 
patriotism,  of  work  for  the  common  good,  by  thrusting 
forward  the  interest  of  the  caste  as  opposed  to  those  of 
the  community,  and  by  making  combined  efforts  for  the 
common  good  exceedingly  difficult.  But  its  most  seri- 
ous offense  is  its  effect  on  national  life  and  national 
unity.  It  intensifies  local  dissensions  and  diverse 
interests,  and  obscures  great  national  ideals  and  interests 
which  should  be  those  of  every  caste  and  people,  and 
renders  the  country  disunited  and  incapable  of  improv- 
ing its  defects  or  of  availing  itself  of  the  advantages 
which  it  should  gain  from  contact  with  the  civilization 
of  the  West.  It  robs  us  of  our  humanity  by  insisting 
on  the  degradation  of  some  of  our  fellow  men  who  are 
separated  from  us  by  no  more  than  the  accident  of  birth. 
It  prevents  the  noble  and  charitable  impulses  which 
have  done  so  much  for  the  improvement  and  mutual 
benefit  of  European  Society.  It  prevents  our  making 
the  most  of  all  the  various  abilities  of  our  diverse  com- 
munities ;  it  diminishes  all  our  emotional  activities  and 
intellectual  resources.  Again,  it  is  the  most  conserva- 
\  tive  element  in  our  society  and  the  steady  enemy  to  all 
\_reform.     Every  reformer  who  has  endeavored  to  secure 


HINDUISM  45 

the  advance  of  our  society  has  been  driven  out  of  it  by 
the  operation  of  caste.  By  its  rigidity,  it  preserves 
ignorant  superstitions  and  clings  to  the  past,  while  it 
does  nothing  to  make  those  inevitable  changes  which 
nature  is  ever  pressing  on  us  more  easy  and  more 
possible. 

If  Hinduism  is  caste  and  caste  is  this,  who  can 
fail  to  see  the  duty  of  Christianity  toward 
Hinduism.? 

2.    The  inferiority  of  woman  has  been  brought  Tte  Infe 
as  a  principle    into   the   laws    and    institutions  of  ity  of 
Hinduism.      Much   can   be   found    in   the   Hindu    woman, 
sacred  literature  in  praise  of  woman,  but  for  each 
such  sentiment  two  can   be  cited   which    degrade 
woman   to    an    inferior  place   and   deny   her    the    I 
rights  without  which  the  moral   health  of  society 
is  impaired.      Passing  by  the  great  mass  of  testi- 
mony which  can  be  cited  from  the  Hindu   Scrip- 
tures and   from  Hindu  reformers,  not  to  speak  of 
the  unanswerable  testimony  of  the  British  statute 
books    proclaiming    as    criminal     practice     after 
practice  which  Hinduism  defended  and  for  which 
it  fought  in  the  name  of  the  integrity  of  religion, 
it   w^ll    suffice   to  quote  again   the  calm  words  of 
the  Gaekwar  of  Baroda: — 

It  is  not  necessary  for  me  to  dwell  upon  all  those 
familiar  questions  which  cluster  round  the  question  of 
the  status  of  women.  I  would  merely  point  out  that 
what  we  may  most  legitimately  object  against  each  is 
that  they  involve  a  bad  economy  of  social  forces. 

Early  marriage,  especially  now  that  the  checks  on 
early  consummation  are   breaking  down,  must  increase 


46         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

death  and  disease  among  the  mothers,  swell  infant 
mortality  and  injure  the  p^t^xsigue  of  the  race.  It  inter- 
feres, also,  with  the  proper  education  of  women. 

A  too  strict  purdah  mutilates  social  life  and  makes 
its  current  dull  and  sluggish  by  excluding  the  brighten- 
ing influence  of  women. 

By  the  denial  of  education  to  women  we  deprive  our- 
selves of  half  the  potential  force  of  the  nation,  deny 
to  our-  children  the  advantage  of  having  cultured 
mothers,  and  by  stunting  the  faculties  of  the  mother 
affect  injuriously  the  heredity  of  the  race.  We  create, 
moreover,  a  gulf  of  mental  division  in  the  home,  and 
put  a  powerful  drag  on  progress  by  making  the  women 
a  great  conservative  force  that  clings  to  everything  old, 
however  outworn  or  irrational. 

The  existence  side  by  side  of  customs  like  polygamy 
and  the  prohibition  of  widow  remarriage  similarly 
shows  a  bad  organization  of  society.  The  one  keeps  up 
an  unduly  low  standard  of  morality  among  men,  the 
other  demands  an  impossibly  high  standard  from 
women.  To  enforce  the  standard  we  suppress  our  feel- 
ings of  humanity  and  affection  and  inflict  severities 
upon  widows  to  keep  their  vitality  low  and  make  them 
less  attractive;  yet  the  impossibility  remains  and  the 
laws  of  nature  we  have  ignored  avenge  themselves  ;  for, 
in  spite  of  our  harsh  measures,  we  fail  to  preserve  even 
an  ordinary  standard  of  morality  in  this  much  ill-treated 
class. 

We  do  well,  therefore,  in  protesting  against  these 
evils  and  striving  for  their  alteration. 

We  should,  however,  realize  where  the  evil  lies.  It 
is  in  the  lowering  of  our  ideas  about  women  and  the 
relations  of  the  sexes. 

It  is  this  ideal  of  woman  which  Christianity  must 

raise  for  India. 

\    3.    Religion    and    morality    in     India    are    both 


HINDUISM  47 

vitiated   by  the   pantheistic    idea    of    God   which    A  False 
rules    Indian     thought    and     which     has    always  Thought  of 
triumphed  over  every  reforming  protest  in  behalf  ^°°^\ 
of  theism.      ^'Pantheism, "  says   Flint   in  *'Anti- 
Theistic  Theories,  "  *'is  the  theory  which  regards 
all  finite  things  as  merely  aspects,  modifications, 
or  parts  of   one   eternal    and    self-existent  being; 
which  views  all  material  objects,  and  all  particu- 
lar  minds,  as  necessarily   derived   from   a   single 
infinite  substance.      The  one  absolute  substance  — 
the    one    all-comprehensive   being — it  calls    God.   , 
Thus    God,  according    to    it,  is  all    that    is,  and  j 
nothing  is  which   is  not   essentially    included    in,  ; 
or  which  has  not  been  necessarily  evolved  out  of,  ; 
God."      This  conception  of  God  and  man  cannot 
nourish  a  religion  of  affectionate  devotion.      "In- 
stead of  love  and  communion  in  love.  It  can  only 
commend   to   us   the    contemplation  of   an  object 
which  is    incomprehensible,  devoid   of   all    affec- 
tions, and  indifferent  to  all   actions.      When  feel- 
ings like  love,  gratitude,  and  trust  are  expressed 
in  the  hymns  and  prayers  of  Hindu  worship,  it  is 
in  consequence  of   a  virtual   denial    of   the   prin- 
ciples of  pantheism." 

And  just  as  pantheism  is  fatal  to  true  religion,' 
so  also  is  it  fatal  to  morals,  if  it  is  allowed  to|l 
work  out  its  logical  consequence.  It  strikes  at  \ 
the  very  roots  of  morality.  Indian  pantheism, 
teaches  that  sin  is  neither  real  in  itself  nor' 
capable  of  reaching  to  what  is  real  in  man;  that 
it    is   but    a  creation  of    ignorance;  that  '^though 


48         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

the  soul  plunge  itself  in  sin,  like  a  sword  in 
water,  it  shall  in  no  wise  cling  to  it;"  that  the 
distinctions  of  right  and  wrong  are  mere  appear- 
ances which  will  vanish  as  soon  as  the  dream 
state  of  life  is  dispelled.  The  existence  of  funda- 
mental moral  distinctions  is  contradicted  or  ig-nored 
by  pantheism.  Hinduism  has  denied  the  reality 
of  the  eternal  and  necessary  distinction  between 
righteousness  and  sin.  It  admits  that  there  is  a 
difference,  but  the  difference  is  not  inherent  and 
essential,  but  only  accidental  and  illusory,  exist- 
ing not  in  facts  but  in  our  conceptions,  imagined 
under  the  power  of  illusion.  As  a  South  Indian 
song  puts  it: — 

To  them  that  fully  know  the  heavenly  truth, 
There  is  no  good  or  ill ;  nor  anything 
To  be  desired,  unclean  or  purely  clean. 

Where  God  is  seen,  there  can  be  nought  but  God, 
His  heart  can  have  no  place  for  fear  or  shame  ; 
For  caste,  uncleanness,  hate,  or  wandering  thought, 
Impure  or  pure,  are  all  alike  to  Him. 

Sin  is  not  one  of  the  deep  convictions  of  Hindu- 
ism. There  is  no  personal  God.  There  is  no 
burdening  sense  of  personal  responsibility.  Men 
are  God.  ''We  are  the  children  of  God,  the 
sharers  of  immortal  bliss,  holy  and  perfect 
beings,"  said  Swami  Vivakananda  at  the  Par- 
liament of  Religions  in  Chicago  in  1893.  ''Ye, 
divinities  on  earth,  sinners?  It  is  a  sin  to  call  a 
man  so;  it  is  a  standing  libel  on  human  nature." 
It   is  not    a  careless  charge  against   Hinduism    to 


HINDUISM  49 

accuse  it  of  this  fundamental  ethical  failure. 
Naryan  Sheshadri,  one  of  the  most  notable 
Christian  converts  from  Hinduism,  ascribed  his 
conversion  to  the  alarm  he  felt  on  discovering 
that  Hindu  philosophy  was  destroying  all  sense 
of  moral  responsibility.  "Will  you  please  give 
a  vivid  contrast  between  Hinduism  and  Chris- 
tianity?" writes  a  correspondent  to  "Epiphany," 
the  paper  of  the  Oxford  Mission  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Epiphany  in  Calcutta;  and  the  paper 
replies,  "Christianity  teaches  men  to  distinguish;/ 
vice  from  virtue;  Hinduism  does  not. "  ("Epiph-/ 
any,"  Feb.  6,  1909.)  Not  only  has  Hinduism 
failed  in  this,  but  vice  and  impurity  have  actually 
found  a  home  within  the  religion.  Dancing  girls 
were  devoted  to  the  gods  as  prostitutes,  and 
temples  were  filled  with  abominable  sculpture,  so 
that  when  obscene  pictures  or  representations  were 
forbidden  by  the  penal  code,  in  the  following 
article: — 

292.  Whosoever  sells  or  distributes,  imports  or 
prints  for  sale  or  hire,  or  wilfully  exhibits  to  public 
view,  any  obscene  book,  pamphlet,  paper,  drawing, 
painting,  representation  or  figure,  or  attempts  or  offers 
so  to  do,  shall  be  punished  with  imprisonment  of  either 
description  for  a  term  which  may  extend  to  three 
months,  or  with  fine,  or  with  both, 

it  was  necessary  to  make  the  following  exception : — 

This  section  does  not  extend  to  any  representation 
sculptured,  engraved,  painted  or  otherwise  represented 
on  or  in  any  temple  or  on  any  car  used  for  the  convey- 
ance of  idols,  or  kept  or  used  for  any  religious  purpose. 


50         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

India  needs  a  new  conception  of  God  and  of  right- 
eousness which  will  make  its  temples  fountains 
of  purity. 

4.  And  not  only  is  Hinduism  deficient  in  its 
philosophy  of  God.  It  is  deficient,  also,  in  its 
attempts  to  represent  Him.  Its  pantheism  is 
allied  to  the  lower  polytheism.  Popularly,  it  is 
a  religion  of  idolatry  and  the  gods  whom  it 
worships  are  not  good  gods. 

It  is  often  said  that  Hindu  idolatry  is  not  real 
worship  of  idols,  but  is  a  true  though  ignorant 
worship  of  the  one  God  beyond  the  idols.  But 
Ram  Mohun  Roy  knew  what  the  facts  were  and 
are.  ''I  have  observed,"  said  he,  "that  both  in 
their  writings  and  conversation,  many  Europeans 
feel  a  wish  to  palliate  and  soften  the  features  of 
Hindu  idolatry,  and  are  inclined  to  indicate  that 
all  objects  of  worship  are  considered  by  their 
votaries  as  emblematical  representations  of  the 
supreme  Divinity.  If  this  were  indeed  the  case, 
I  might  perhaps  be  led  into  some  examination  of 
the  subject,  but  the  truth  is,  the  Hindus  of  the 
present  day  have  no  such  views  of  the  subject, 
but  firmly  believe  in  the  real  existence  of  the 
innumerable  gods  and  goddesses,  who  possess,  in 
their  own  departments,  full  and  independent 
power;  and  to  propitiate  them,  and  not  the  true 
God,  are  temples  erected  and  ceremonies  per- 
formed. .  .  .  Neither  do  they  regard  the  images 
of  these  gods  merely  in  the  light  of  instruments 
for  elevating  the  mind  to  the  conception  of  those 


HINDUISM  51 

supposed  beings;  they  are  simply  in  themselves 
made  objects  of  worship."  And  this  actual 
idolatry,  of  which  India  is  full,  is  a  shame  and 
curse  to  religion.  The  Arya  Samaj  catechism 
denounces  it.  ' 'Idolatry, "  it  says,  ''is  a  folly 
that  blunts  one's  mind  and  faculties  and  never 
induces  him  to  make  onward  and  spiritual 
progress,  but  tends  to  contempt  and  scorn  being 
thrown  at  Hindus  by  the  foreigners.  As  long  as 
British,  Romans  and  Grecians  were  idolators, 
they  could  acquire  no  civilization  and  make  no 
scientific  and  intellectual  progress.  The  same 
may  be  said  as  regards  Hindus.  Unless  they 
give  up  idolatry  they  will  never  rise,  be  civilized 
and  improve  in  their  social  and  intellectual  con- 
dition, and  will  by  no  means  acquire  the  wisdom 
of  which  the  Aryas,  the  adorers  of  one  God,  were 
proud. ' ' 

And  not  only  is  the  idolatry  of  India  real 
idolatry,  but  the  characters  of  the  gods  are  bad. 
The  principal  deities,  as  Brahma,  Vishnu,  Siva, 
Indra,  Krishna,  are  represented  in  the  sacred 
books  as  guilty  of  theft,  lying,  intoxication, 
adultery,  murder.  India  needs  a  good  and  pure 
God,  such    as  she   has  not   had   for  thousands   of 


years.  It  is  true  that  in  the  Bhagavad  Gita 
Krishna  is  called  "the  holiest  of  the  holy,"  but 
even  in  the  Gita  he  is  not  shown  to  be  a  worthy 
god,  and  in  the  Bhagavata  Purana  he  is  repre- 
sented as  stained  with  crime.  The  Hindus  say 
that  the  gods  are  gods  and  that  "to  the  mighty  is 


62 


THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 


Contrasts 
Between  Hin- 
duism and 
Christianity. 


no  sin,"  but  bad  gods  cannot  make  good  men. 
*'I  never  learned  purity,"  said  Gungram,  one  of 
the  early  Christian  converts,  "from  reading  about 
Krishna's  wicked  conduct,  as  recorded  in  the 
Shasters.  I  never  learned  to  hate  any  sin  from 
all  my  knowledge  of  the  gods  of  India;  but  from 
this  word,  the  word  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Saviour 
of  Sinners,  Who  died  for  us,  I  have  learned  and 
hope  to  go  on  learning,  till  I  shall  be  taken  away 
from  sin  altogether." 

These  deficiencies  of  Hinduism  bring  out  clearly 
enough  the  contrasts  between  Hinduism  and 
Christianity.  These  contrasts  might  be  indef- 
initely multiplied.  The  initial  conceptions  of 
the  two  religions  as  to  religion  itself  are  different. 
Christianity  is  the  expression  of  God's  seeking 
love.  It  is  a  revelation  of  God  to  man.  Hin- 
duism has  been  the  embodiment  of  man's  aspira- 
tion after  God.  Their  conceptions  of  God  are 
dissimilar, — as  far  apart  as  monotheism  and  pan- 
theism. Their  theories  of  the  universe  are 
divergent.  To  the  Christian  the  world  is  a 
creation  by  God  of  something  not  identical  with 
God.  To  the  Brahman  the  world  is  eternal  with 
God,  and  is  of  God.  The  two  faiths  differ  as  to 
man.  In  Christianity  man  is  the  son  of  God, 
fallen  but  under  recovery  by  the  redeeming  life 
of  Christ,  and  his  life  is  a  great  reality.  The 
Hindu  Scrijotures  represent  him  as  a  mere  illu- 
sion, the  plaything  of  the  absolute  One.  For 
him    to    claim   real    existence   is  the   madness   of 


HINDUISM  53 

Avidya,  ignorance.  Life  is  Maya,  illusion. 
Christianity  aims  at  the  banishing  of  sin  from 
life  and  the  formation  of  true  character.  Hindu- 
ism evaporates  the  idea  of  sin.  Indeed,  it  is  an 
impossibility,  since  all  is  God.  Christianity 
deems  the  great  evil  of  the  world  moral.  Hindu- 
ism, intellectual.  In  Christianity  God  is  w^ork- 
ing  in  men  to  save  them,  and  God  and  men 
are  free.  In  Hinduism  karma  (deeds)  deter- 
mines everything.  Every  man  is  in  the  grasp  of 
the  consequence  of  the  deeds  of  a  former  life. 
All  is  iron  necessity,  both  in  God  and  in  man. 
The  great  notes  of  Christianity  are  love,  service,  i 
sacrifice  for  others.  The  great  notes  of  Hinduism! 
are  meditation,  self-mortification,  asceticism. 
Christianity  holds  that  life  is  to  be  filled  w^ith 
joy.  .  Hinduism,  that  individual  existence  is 
inseparably  bound  up  with  sorrow.  Christianity 
teaches  the  singularity  and  determinatism  of  the 
one  earthly  life.  Here  we  learn  to  live  by  faith 
and  pass  forward  to  be  with  God  forever. 
Hinduism  teaches  transmigration  and  the  endless 
working  out  in  life  after  life  of  the  law  of 
karma.  Christianity  exalts  the  individual  at 
the  same  time  that  it  teaches  the  unity  of  souls  in 
the  family  of  God  and  the  body  of  Christ. 
Hinduism  is  the  foe  to  individual  freedom.  It 
allows  nothing  to  the  individual  except  the 
penalty  of  his  deeds.  Christianity  is  the  great 
religion  of  progress.  Hinduism  deifies  the  past. 
'^The   code   of    Manu,  which   is  the   source    and 


54 


THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 


supreme  authority  for  caste,  has  done  more  to 
stereotype  and  degrade  social  and  religious  life 
in  India  than  has  any  other  code  in  all  the  history 
of  other  lands."  Christianity  is  absolute  and 
universal.  Hinduism  is  adaptive  and  ethnic. 
Christianity  sets  forth  a  living  and  perfect  moral 
ideal.  Hinduism  in  its  best  and  loftiest  moral 
codes  presents  a  negative  and  imperfect  ideal. 
In  Christianity  God  is  all  goodness.  In 
Hinduism  it  is  not  always  so.  We  cannot  shut 
our  eyes  to  the  terrible  indictment  of  Professor 
Hopkins:  "In  modern  Hinduism  to  kill,  lust, 
steal,  drink,  so  far  from  offending,  may  please  a 
god  that  is  amorous  or  bloodthirsty,  or  like  Siva, 
is  the  lord  of  thieves.  Morality  here  has  God 
against  it."  (Hopkins,  "The  Religions  of 
India,"  p.  55.)  In  one  w^ord,  Christianity 
teaches  what  is  entirely  absent  in  Hinduism, — 
that  God  is  our  Father  and  that  men  are  brothers, 
that  God  has  suffered  for  man,  and  that  the  end 
of  man's  life  is  to  love  God  and  his  fellow-men 
and  to  serve  them  in  the  power  of  love.  (Jones, 
"Hinduism  and  Christianity,  a  Comparison  and 
^  Contrast,"  pp.  22-59;  Kellogg,  "Hinduism,  a 
Sermon,"  pp.  1-22.) 

But  there  are  also  points  of  contact  between 
Christianity  and  Hinduism.  If  there  were  not, 
the  task  of  winning  India  to  Christ  would  be 
hopeless.  The  great  encouragement,  apart  from 
our  own  faith  in  the  Gospel  and  our  own  experi- 
ence of  Christ  as  the  Universal  Saviour,  is  found 


HINDUISM  55 

in  the  fact  that  Hinduism  witnesses  to  great  needs 
which  only  the  Gosi^el  can  meet,  to  longings 
which  only  Christ  can  fulfill.  Hinduism  and 
Christianity  are  the  only  two  faiths  which  hold 
the  doctrine  of  incarnation  as  of  primal  impor- 
tance. It  grew  up  in  later  Hinduism  in  response 
to  deep  human  necessities.  In  the  earlier 
Hinduism  to  which  the  Hindu  thought  of  to-day 
is  turning,  there  was  also  the  idea  of  sacrificial 
atonement  for  sin.  The  unceasing  revolt  against 
pantheism  in  the  interest  of  a  pure  theistic  faith 
has  kept  alive  in  India  for  hundreds  of  years  a 
mind  for  the  true  God.  The  idea  of  bhakti 
or  living  faith  is  a  Christian  principle.  Some 
hold  that  it  came  into  Hinduism  as  a  result  of 
Christian  influence,  but  in  any  case  it  is  there. 
The  report  of  Commission  IV  at  the  World 
Missionary  Conference  in  Edinburgh  presented 
evidence  from  many  missionaries  in  India  bear- 
ing on  these  points  of  contact  between  Hinduism 
and  Christianity.  Five  of  these  testimonies  will 
suffice.  The  first  finds  in  Indian  theism,  the 
second  in  the  Vedanta,  the  most  fruitful  points 
of  contact  and  preparation  for  Christianity;  the 
third  takes  the  view  that  they  are  both  alike  ful- 
filled and  superseded  by  Christianity;  the 
fourth  finds  a  preparation  in  the  daily  religious 
life  of  devout  Hinduism,  and  the  fifth  in  the  deep 
spiritual  longings  of  the  Hindu  heart. 

This    stream    of    bhakti,    devious    as    its    course    has 
so  frequently  been,  forms    the  main  stream  of   the    reli- 


56        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

gion  of  India  and  that  which  has  the  closest  relation  to 
Christianity.  Its  characteristics  are  belief  in  a  personal 
God,  union  with  Him  as  the  condition  of  blessedness, 
and  faith  as  the  means  whereby  that  union  is  attained. 
It  is  also  generally  associated  with  a  belief  in  avatars 
or  incarnations,  as  is  indicated  in  a  famous  passage  of 
the  Bhagavad-gita  (Iv.  7),  and  in  the  following  passage 
from  Ramanuja,  the  philosopher  of  this  school :  ''As 
He  (the  supreme  Spirit)  is  a  great  ocean  of  boundless 
grace,  kindness,  love  and  generosity.  He  assumed  vari- 
ous similar  forms  without  putting  away  His  own  essen- 
tial God-like  nature,  and  time  after  time  incarnated 
Himself  in  the  several  worlds,  granting  to  His  wor- 
shipers rewards  according  to  their  desires ;  namely, 
religion,  riches,  earthly  love  and  salvation,  and  descend- 
ing not  ovAy  with  the  purpose  of  relieving  the  burden 
of  earth,  but  also  to  be  accessible  to  men  even  such  as 
we  are,  so  revealing  Himself  in  the  world  as  to  be  visi- 
ble to  the  sight  of  all,  and  doing  such  other  marvelous 
deeds  as  to  ravish  the  hearts  and  eyes  of  all  beings  high 
and  low."  This  attitude  in  India  has  seldom  attained 
to  a  full  and  conscious  monotheism,  though  that  is 
often  implicit  in  the  worshiper's  devotional  spirit.  (M. 
Macnicol.) 

The  most  important  fraeparatio  evattgelica  in 
Hinduism  is  the  Hindu  doctrine  of  Liberation  (Mok- 
sha,  Mukti).  From  the  time  of  the  Upanishads 
down  to  the  present  day,  the  people  of  India  long  for 
and  aspire  after  liberation;  i.  e.,  the  salvation  of  their 
souls  in  union  with  the  Supreme  Being.  It  is,  indeed, 
conceived  by  them  as  deliverance  of  the  soul  from  the 
sufferings  and  pains  of  transmigration,  and  in  union 
with  the  pantheistically  conceived  Godhead,  details 
which  the  Christian  missionary  cannot  help  regarding 
as  erroneous  and  quite  inadequate  to  the  deeper  wants 
of  the  human  soul.  But  the  main  idea  is  most  valuable 
as  a  preparation  for  the  gospel    of   salvation,  as  a  point 


HINDUISM  57 

of  contact  between  Christianity  and  Hinduism,  and  as  a 
means  of  elucidation  by  contrast.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
I  know  nothing  more  effective  in  arousing  the  interest 
of  a  Hindu  audience  than  the  gospel  presented  as  a 
message  of  moksha  ;  /.  ^.,  of  salvation  by  communion 
with  God.      (W.  Dilger.) 

There  is  no  contradiction  between  the  concept  of  the 
universal  incomprehensible  Brahma  and  the  concept  of 
the  Universal  Personality  whose  will  is  the  order  of  the 
universe.  The  positive  elements  in  the  concept  of 
Brahma  are  unity,  universality,  reality,  and  intelligence; 
if,  within  that  rather  sketchy  metaphysical  outline,  there 
now  appears  the  universal  person  whose  will  forms  the 
moral  order  of  the  world,  the  old  idea  is  in  no  way  dis- 
turbed or  weakened,  but  receives  the  rich  moral  content 
necessary  for  its  completion.  God  is  still  one,  still 
universal,  still  the  mind  of  the  world,  while  He  has 
become  much  more,  for  He  is  now  the  basis  of  the 
moral  as  well  as  of  the  intellectual  order.  Thus  the 
early  philosophy  of  India  realized  a  conception  of  God 
of  the  highest  truth  and  value,  and  held  to  it  faithfully 
through  all  storms  and  changes.  The  theistic  reformers 
attempted  a  hundred  times  to  fill  this  lofty  truth  with  a 
content  that  would  make  it  the  center  of  all  religion, 
but  the  very  fact  that  each  new  leader  projected  a  new 
scheme  is  all  the  proof  that  is  needed  that  no  scheme 
has  proved  satisfactory.  The  true  but  incomplete 
concept  of  the  Upanishads  and  the  long  search  of  the 
theists  both  find  their  completion  in  the  God  of  Chris- 
tianity.     (J.  N.  Farquhar. ) 

The  Hindu  trimurti  (Brahma,  Vishnu  and  Siva)  is 
very  different  from  the  Christian  conception  of  the 
Trinity,  yet  it  prepares  the  way  and,  to  a  great  extent, 
removes  the  objections  to  this  doctrine.  Better  points 
of  contact  and  positive  preparation  may  be  found  in 
the  actual  religious  life  of  the  present  day  Hindu.  A 
reference     to    the    daily    confession     of     sin    in    every 


^8         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Brahman's  ritual  is  both  of  historical  and  practical 
Value  on  a  point  where  it  is  most  difficult  to  find  con- 
nection, because  of  the  defective  consciousness  of  sin 
as  a  moral  reality-  But  the  deepest  and  most  direct 
preparation  is  to  be  looked  for  in  the  growing  bhakti 
movement,  with  its  strong  emphasis  on  the  sincerity 
and  spiritual  character  of  the  individual's  devotional 
surrender  to  God.  It  expresses  itself  in  many  false 
forms,  and  leads  more  often  to  ecstatic  trances  than  to 
a  personal  relation  to  the  true  God.  Most  of  its  fol- 
lowers worship  that  they  know  not,  yet  we  have  here  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  individual  to  break  through 
all  ceremonialism  and  intellectualism  and  to  worship 
in  truth  and  in  spirit,  which  cannot  but  prepare  the  way 
for  the  true  revelation.      (F.  W.  Steinthal.) 

As  to  the  point  of  contact  between  Christianity  and 
Hinduism,  I  should  put  first  and  foremost  the  spiritual 
view  of  life  as  opposed  to  the  materialistic  conception 
of  the  West.  Though  the  quality  of  this  spiritual  view 
may  be  very  deficient,  and  though  it  may  contain  much 
which  is  erroneous,  yet  there  can  be  no  question  that  in 
Hinduism  religion  is,  and  has  always  been,  the  supreme 
concern  of  the  Hindu  mind.  The  belief  that  the  things 
which  are  seen  are  temporal,  while  the  things  which 
are  not  seen  are  eternal  is  deeply  ingrained  in  the 
Hindu  temperament.  Then  I  should  say  that  the  con- 
ception of  the  oneness  of  God,  though  essentially  pan- 
theistic and  bound  up  with  polytheism,  is  nevertheless  a 
great  religious  asset,  destined  to  be  of  immense  value 
for  the  future  of  Christianity  in  India.  Pantheism  in 
India  is  more  theistic  than  panistic,  if  the  expression 
may  be  allowed.  The  conception  of  the  divine,  that  is, 
is  more  in  evidence  than  the  conception  of  the  All. 
Again,  the  conception  of  incarnation,  though  presenting 
very  marked  defects  and  misconceptions,  is  nevertheless 
not  a  foreign  idea.  This  conception  is  also  associated 
with  the  idea  of  divine  action  for  the  good  of  humanity, 


HINDUISM  59 

and  bhakti  and  the  bhaktimarga  again  have 
marked  affinities  with  the  Christian  conceptions  of 
loving  devotion  on  the  part  of  man,  and  grace  on  the 
part  of  God.  Though  the  idea  of  salvation  (/.  ^., 
moksha)  is  always  associated  with  the  conception  of 
rebirth,  yet  there  is  also  connected  with  it  an  earnest 
longing  and  passionate  desire  for  union  with  God. 
These  are  a  few  of  the  outsanding  features,  but  a  sym- 
pathetic mind  will  find  very  much  in  Hindu  religious 
ideas  which  anticipates  fuller  expression  in  Christianity. 
(Bernard  Lucas.) 

Do  we  have  the  sympathetic  mind  which  will 
not  only  discover  the  longing  for  that  which  is 
available  in  Christ  alone,  but  will  also  share  this 
treasure  with  the  unsatisfied  heart  of  India? 
(See  also  Hogg,  "Karma  and  Redemption;" 
Kellatt,  "Christ  the  Fulfillment  of  Hinduism;" 
and  Banerjea,  "The  Relation  Between  Chris- 
tianity and  Hinduism.") 

Hinduism  has  not  met  India's  need,  and  never 
can  meet  it.  It  can  be  met  in  only  one  way. 
"What  India  wants,"  said  Mr.  Justice  Robertson 
of  the  Punjab,  in  London  in  July,  1910,  "is  one 
thing  only,  and  that  is  Christ." 

BIBLE  READING 

First  Chapter  of  Romans. 

QUESTIONS 

What  are  the  noble  qualities  of  the  Indian  people? 
What  are  the  principal  sacred  books  of  Hinduism? 
Describe  modern  philosophic  Hinduism. 
What    are    the    characteristics    of    modern    popular 
Hinduism? 


60        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Sketch  the  progress  of  reformed  Hinduism  and  name 
the  principal  reformers. 

What  is  the  difference  between  the  Brahmo  and  the 
Arja  Samaj  ? 

How  has  Christianity  affected  the  thought  of 
Hinduism? 

Wherein  is  Hinduism  deficient? 

What  is  the  place  of  caste  in  Hinduism?  What 
defence  can  be  made  of  it?     What  are  its  evils? 

Describe  the  place  of  woman  in  Hindu  society  and 
the  influence  of   Hinduism  upon  ideals  of   womanhood. 

What  are  the  defects  in  the  Hindu  ideas  of  God? 

Summarize  the  contrasts  between  Hinduism  and 
Christianity. 

What  are  the  points  of  contact  between  Hinduism  and 
Christianity? 

SELECTED  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Monier  Williams,  "Hinduism,"  Gorham,   1894. 

Monier  Williams,  ''Brahmanism  and  Hinduism,"  Mac- 
millan,  1891. 

Hopkins,  ''The  Religions  of  India,"  Ginn  &  Co.,  1895. 

Mitchell,  "The  Great  Religions  of  India,"  Revell,  1905. 

Robson,  "Hinduism  and  Christianity,"  Oliphant, 
Anderson  &  Ferrier,  1905. 

Barth,  "Religions  of  India,"  Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co., 
1882. 

Wilkins,  "Modern  Hinduism,"  Scribner,  Welford  & 
Co.,  1887. 

Slater,  "The  Higher  Hinduism  in  Relation  to  Chris- 
tianity," Stock,  1902. 

Datta,  "The  Desire  of  India,"  Student  Volunteer  Mis- 
sionary Union,  1907. 

Bose,  "Brahmoism,  or  History  of  Reformed  Hindu- 
ism," Funk  &  Wagnalls,  1884. 

Lillingstone,  "Brahmo  Samaj  and  Arya  Samaj,"  Mac- 
millan,  1901. 


CHAPTER   II 
BUDDHISM 


CHAPTER   II 

BUDDHISM  . 

Of  all  the  non-Christian  religions  Buddhism  is  _,        ,  , 

®  _       ^  Resemblance 

usually  regarded  as  most  akin  to  Christianity.  ^^  CKris- 
The  character  of  its  founder  more  nearly  resembles  tfanity. 
the  character  of  Christ  than  the  character  of  any 
other  great  religious  teacher,  such  as  Mohammed, 
or  ethical  teacher,  such  as  Confucius,  or  Indian 
deity,  such  as  Krishna  or  Rama.  Its  moral  teach- 
ings in  their  purity  and  kindliness  seem  to  breathe 
the  spirit  of  the  New  Testament  ideal  of  a  good 
man.  Its  sacred  books  are  full  of  stories  wearing 
a  racial  color  very  unlike  the  stories  of  the  Gos- 
pels, but  bearing,  also,  a  curious  resemblance  to 
them.  Its  priesthood  and  worship  and  imagery 
dismayed  the  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  who 
saw  in  them  a  diabolical  adaptation  of  their  own. 
So  attractive  has  Buddhism  appeared  to  many 
Western  minds  that  they  have  felt  sure  that  it  was 
one  of  the  great  divine  lessons,  a  faith  which  em- 
bodied the  Christian  light  and  an  adequate  comfort 
to  the  hearts  that  rested  in  it.  Seen  in  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold's  "Light  of  Asia,"  it  has  seemed  to 
them  not  less  beautiful  than  Christianity  and  free 
from  some  of  its  disadvantages. 

Buddhism  has  been  of  special  interest  to  West-   Wide 
ern   minds,  also,  because    it  has   had  the   largest   Acceptance  of 
number  of  followers  of  any  religion  and,  trained  Buddhism. 


64         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

to  regard  pluralities  as  of  great  significance,  the 
West  has  looked  with  awe  upon  a  religion  which 
embraces  five  hundred  million  souls.  "  More  than 
a  third  of  mankind,"  said  Arnold  in  the  preface  to 
his  poem,  "  owe  their  moral  and  religious  ideals  to 
this  illustrious  prince  whose  personality,  though 
imperfectly  revealed  in  the  existing  sources  of  in- 
formation, cannot  but  appear  the  highest,  gentlest, 
holiest  and  most  beneficent,  with  one  exception,  in 
the  history  of  thought." 

But  both  these  reasons  for  special  interest  in 
Buddhism  are  fallacious.  The  resemblances  to 
Christianity,  as  we  shall  see,  are  underlain  by 
deeper  differences.  Buddha  never  claimed  to  be 
more  than  a  man.  The  salvation  which  he 
preached  was  to  be  worked  out  by  each  man  for 
himself,  without  help  from  any  other  man  or 
from  God.  The  ideas  which  he  taught,  while 
expressible  to  us  only  in  language  saturated  with 
Christian  conceptions,  embody  principles  radically 
at  variance  with  these  conceptions.  The  stories 
of  the  life  of  Buddha  in  the  Buddhist  Scriptures 
which  resemble  at  all  the  stories  in  the  Gospels, 
resemble  them  in  the  same  way  in  which  mediaeval 
legends  resemble  them,  and  moreover,  they  arose 
long  after  Buddha's  death.  And  the  views  of  life 
set  forth  in  these  Scriptures  are,  as  Rhys  Davids 
says,  "fundamentally  opposed  to  those  set  forth 
in  the  New  Testament." 

So,  also,  it  is  misleading  to  speak  of  Buddhism 
as  embracing:  one  third  of  the  human  race.     It  is 


BUDDHISM  65 

true  that  Buddhism  has  influenced  many  in  India 
who  are  not  Buddhists,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
millions  of  those  who  are  called  Buddhists  are 
animistic  spirit-worshipers  rather  than  Buddhists, 
as  in  Burma  and  Siam,  or  moralistic  spirit-wor- 
shipers rather  than  Buddhists,  as  in  China.  To 
figure  out  five  hundred  million  Buddhists  in  the 
world,  it  is  necessary  to  include  the  entire  popula- 
tion of  China  and  Japan.  But  the  Chinese  are  as 
much  Confucianists  and  Taoists  as  they  are  Bud- 
dhists. The  influential  class  of  the  people  repudiate 
Buddhism.  And  in  Japan  Buddhism,  while  still 
active  and  powerful,  as  we  shall  see,  has  really 
ceased  to  be  Buddhism  in  the  sense  of  its  founder, 
and  has  lost  its  hold  upon  the  educated  section  of 
the  people.  But  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  religion 
of  Gautama  is  really  no  man's  religion  to-day,  so 
great  has  been  the  departure  of  the  system  from 
the  ideas  of  its  founder.  "  Not  one  of  the  five 
hundred  millions  who  offer  flowers  now  and  then 
on  Buddhist  shrines,  wdio  are  more  or  less  moulded 
by  Buddhist  teaching,  is  only  or  altogether  a  Bud- 
dhist." (Rhys  Davids,  *' Buddhism,"  p.  7.)  The 
population  of  the  world  which  even  measurably 
follows  the  tradition  of  the  first  two  centuries  of 
Buddhism  is  less  than  the  communicant  Protestant 
church  membership  of  the  United  States. 

We  speak  of  Buddhism  as  a  religion,  and  in  the   Is  Buddhism 
forms  wdth  which  we  ^have  to  deal  with  it  in   the   a  Religion? 
missionary   enterprise    a    religion    it    certainly    is, 
even  in  those  countries  where  it   is  truest  to  its 


66        THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

original  character.  But  in  a  strict  sense,  pure 
Buddhism  is  not  a  rehgion.  "  The  Buddhist,"  a 
monthly  magazine  published  by  the  Young  Men's 
Buddhist  Association  of  Ceylon,  frankly  avows 
this  :  "  It  is  an  etymological  injustice  to  refer  to 
Buddhism  as  a  religion,"  it  says.  "  In  Buddhism 
thought  is  free,  and  authority  has  no  position.  To 
be  a  Buddhist  is  to  be  in^eligatus^  to  be  unbound, 
to  be  freed  from  all  dogmatic  authority.  To  call 
Buddhism  a  religion  is  a  contradiction  in  terms. 
Buddhism  not  only  does  not  admit  the  existence  of 
a  God,  it  also  denies  the  existence  of  a  soul,  a 
permanent,  unchanging  entity.  In  Mahanidana 
Sutta  and  elsewhere  the  Lord  has  positively  stated 
that  man  has  no  soul.  This  denial  of  soul  makes 
it  still  more  inappropriate  to  call  Buddhism  a  re- 
ligion." ("The  Buddhist,"  July,  1907,  p.  219.) 
And  editorially  "  The  Buddhist  "  adds, — 

If  we  adopt  the  broader  definition  of  the  term,  as  enun- 
ciated bjthe  cultured  few,  who,  excluding  the  mysterious 
and  the  unknowable  from  the  sphere  of  religion,  include 
it  within  the  field  of  human  knowledge,  and  make  it  co- 
extensive with  human  conduct,  then  indeed  can  Buddhism 
be  rightly  called  a  religion.  What  Buddhism  is  has  been 
well  defined  by  the  Master  himself  in  the  following 
verse : — 

(^    To  shun  all  that  is  evil, 
)  To  practice  all  that  is  good, 
To  purify  one's  own  heart, 
^    This  is  the  teaching  of  the  Buddhas. 
That  expresses   the  whole  content  of    Buddhism.     It 
demands  no  belief  in  a  god,  involves  no  dogma,  and  en- 
joins  no  ritual.     It  is  self-culture  based  on  self-knowl- 


BUDDHISM  67 

edge.  In  other  words,  it  is  the  rational  regulation  of 
one's  own  conduct.  Buddhism  is  that,  and  nothing 
~^more,  nothing  less.  Whether  or  not  that  will  fulfill  the 
conditions  of  a  religion  depends,  as  has  been  already  in- 
dicated, on  the  meaning  attached  to  that  term.  One 
thing,  however,  is  certain — it  satisfies  the  needs  and  aspi- 
rations of  men  from  whose  eyes  the  scales  of  superstition 
have  fallen,  and  who  need  no  supernatural  help  to  under- 
stand and  appreciate  what  is  good  and  true. 

This  is  only  one  view  of  Buddhism,  however, 
and  a  view  from  which  the  great  majority  of  those 
who  are  called  Buddhists  have  broken  far  away. 
Their  view  is  as  great  a  breach  from  original  Bud- 
dhism as  that  was  from  the  Hinduism  from  which 
it  sprang. 

For  Buddhism  arose  in  the  midst  of  Hinduism  Origin  of 
or  Brahmanism  as  a  revolt  in  the  interest  of  morals  Buddhism, 
against  a  sacerdotalism  which  divorced  religion  and 
conduct,  and  not  only  in  the  interest  of  morals,  but  ■ 
also  in  the  interest  of  spiritual  reality.  The  founder 
of  the  new  way  found  no  solution  of  life's  problem 
and  no  rest  from  its  distress  in  the  old  views. 
What  could  sacrifices  avail  when  there  was  no 
God,  as  he  became  convinced,  to  be  moved  by 
them,  and  when  the  nature  of  man  makes  it  im- 
possible that  a  God  could  do  anything  whatever 
for  him .?  And  were  not  all  men  under  the  same 
burden  of  life  and  equal  in  their  impotence  to 
lighten  that  burden,  which  Buddha  believed  could 
be  lifted  only  with  the  extinction  of  life }  Bud- 
dhism    became,    accordingly,    a     protest     against 


68         THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

Brahmanism  or  sacerdotal  Hinduism  and  against 
caste.  Its  founder  was  a  Hindu  who  lived  and 
died  within  Hinduism.  ''  He  w^ould  have  claimed 
that  he  was  a  correct  exponent  of  the  spirit  of  the 
ancient  Vedic  faith.  His  disciples  simply  claimed 
that  he  was  the  greatest,  wisest  and  best  of  the 
Hindus.  As  there  were  '  reformers  before  the 
Reformation'  in  Europe,  so  in  India  there  were 
sages  before  Gautama  who  were  dissatisfied  with 
the  Brahmanical  system  ;  but  he  was  the  Hindu 
Luther,  in  whose  voice  all  previous  voices  blended, 
and  whose  personality  fused  into  living  unity  forces 
that  had  been  long  gathering,  and  originated  a 
movement  that  swept  over  India  and  all  but  sub- 
merged for  a  time  the  monuments,  institutions  and 
ordinances  of  the  ancient  religion."  (Grant, 
"  The  Religions  of  the  World,"  p.  108.)  Brah- 
manic  Hinduism,  however,  was  too  strong  and 
adaptive.  It  took  Buddhism  by  the  hand  and 
boldly  drew  it  back  again  into  the  ancient  system. 
It  adopted  Buddha  as  an  incarnation  of  Vishnu. 
It  took  from  Buddhism  "  the  abolition  of  sacri- 
fices, great  tenderness  toward  animal  life,  great 
intensity  of  belief  in  the  doctrine  of  transmigration 
and  in  the  efficacy  of  self-mortification  as  a  source  of 
power  in  accelerating  progress  towards  final  emanci- 
pation." (Williams,  '' Hinduism,"  p.  80.)  On  the 
other  hand.  Buddhism  degenerated.  It  became 
more  idolatrous  than  Hinduism.  Also  it  dropped 
its  ultra-pessimism  and  atheism.      It  lost  its  indi- 


BUDDHISM  69 

viduality,  and  as  a  distinct  system  faded  out  of 
India.  "  The  old  faith  took  it  into  its  arms  and 
sucked  out  its  Hfe  blood."  That  is  what  Hinduism 
would  fain  do  with  Christianity  to-day. 

While  Buddhism  has  subsided  into  Hinduism  in  Jainism, 
India,  there  remains  in  Jainism  a  religion  akin  to 
Buddhism,  maintaining  a  distinct  existence.  It  is 
a  cult  for  the  worship  of  the  seventy-two  Victori- 
ous Ones,  men  who  by  self-discipline  have  tri- 
umphed over  their  passions  and  have  attained 
perfection.  According  to  the  census  there  are 
half  a  million  Jains.  The  Jains  believe  in  sepa- 
rate individual  souls,  as  the  Buddhists  do  not. 
Their  "three  jewels"  are  Right-belief,  Right- 
knowledge  and  Right-conduct,  instead  of  the  Bud- 
dhist Triad — the  Buddha,  the  Law  and  the  Order. 

1 
They  are  great  shrine  builders,  and  while  the  sys- 
tem is  cold  and  fruitless,  it  is  even  more  punctilious 
than  Buddhism  in  refraining  from  taking  life. 
They  strain  water  before  drinking  it,  sweep  the 
ground  before  sitting  down,  and  even  wear  gauze 
over  their  mouths  to  avoid  destroying  insect  life. 
It  is  an  interesting  illustration  of  the  soul's  need 
of  a  religion,  and  of  the  strange  forms  which  the 

religious  instinct  will  create. 

.  \ 

Gautama,  the  founder  of  Buddhism,  was  born   Life  of  the 

m  the  sixth  century  B.  C,  at  a  place  called  Kapila-   Founder  of 

vastu,  on  the  border  of  the  river  Rohini  in  Kasala,   Buddhism. 

the  modern  district  of  Oudh,  about  one  hundred 

miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  Benares.     The  date 

of    his    birth    is  uncertain.      The    traditions  fix  it 


70         THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

about  543  B.  C,  but  modern  European  scholars 
are  disposed  to  place  it  about  500  B.  C.  Almost 
all  that  we  know  of  his  life  is  legendary.  His 
father,  named  Suddhodana,  was  chief  of  the  tribe 
of  Sakyas  of  the  Kshatriya  caste.  His  mother, 
Maya,  who  had  been  childless  until  his  birth  in 
her  forty-fifth  year,  died  shortly  afterwards,  and  he 
was  brought  up  by  his  mother's  sister,  who  w^as 
also  a  wife  of  Suddhodana.  Gautama  was  the 
boy's  only  name.  Later,  when  he  had  attained, 
as  he  believed,  perfect  wisdom,  he  took  the  title 
of  Buddha,  "the  enlightened  one."  Many  other 
titles  and  names  were  then  and  later  given  to  him, 
such  as  Sakya-muni,  or  the  sage  of  the  Sakyas, 
Siddartha,  or  "one  who  has  fulfilled  the  purpose 
of  his  coming,"  Tathagata,  or  he  "who  comes 
and  goes  as  his  predecessors."  Faithful  Buddhists 
call  him  "Lord  of  the  World,"  "the  Lord," 
"  King  of  the  Law,"  etc. 
Renunciation.  He  was  married  early  to  his  cousin,  Yasodhara, 
and  his  life  was  surrounded  by  all  that  could  make 
a  man  happy.  But  Gautama  was  not  happy. 
The  burden  of  human  suffering,  of  the  transitori- 
ness  of  all  pleasure,  of  the  sheer  weight  of  exist- 
ence rested  on  his  mind  unceasingly,  and  the 
luxury  of  his  home  did  not  hide  the  weariness  and 
woe  of  life  from  him.  In  his  twenty-ninth  year, 
accordingly,  he  abandoned  his  home,  his  wife  and 
his  new-born  son,  who  he  feared  would  only  tie 
him  faster  to  his  old  life,  and  withdrew  into  seclu- 
sion to  study  religion  and  philosophy  and  to  seek 


BUDDHISM  71 

for  the  secret  of  peace,  the  way  of  escape  from 
life's  intolerable  load.  All  the  traditions  agree  in 
their  general  account  of  the  reason  for  Gautama's 
resolution  to  forsake  the  world.  The  version  put 
forth  by  the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon  gives  the  story  : — 

The  books  tell  us  that  when  Prince  Siddartha  was 
driving  in  the  park  one  day  he  suddenly  perceived  an 
infirm  old  man,  with  back  bent  by  the  weight  of  years, 
who  was  creeping  painfully  along,  leaning  upon  a  staff. 
Siddartha,  in  astonishment,  asked  his  charioteer,  Channa, 
what  that  strange  being  might  be,  and  Channa  answered 
that  it  was  an  old  man.  "Was  he  born  in  this  state.'*" 
further  inquired  the  prince.  "No,  master,  he  once  was 
young  and  blooming  as  thou."  "Are  there  more  such 
old  men.'"'  asked  the  prince,  with  growing  astonishment. 
"Very  many,  master."  "And  how  did  he  arrive  at  this 
deplorable  condition  ?  "  "  It  is  the  course  of  nature  that 
all  men  inust  grow  old  and  feeble,  if  they  do  not  die 
young."  "I,  also,  Channa.^"  "Thou  also,  master." 
This  incident  made  the  prince  so  pensive  that  he  gave 
orders  to  be  driven  home,  having  lost  all  pleasure  in  the 
beautiful  surroundings.  Some  time  after  this,  while  out 
driving  again,  he  saw  a  leper,  and  when  in  answer  to  his 
questions  Channa  also  explained  this  apparition  to  him, 
he  was  so  deeply  affected  that  thereafter  he  avoided  all 
amusements,  and  began  to  ponder  over  human  misery. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  third  apparition  was  perceived 
by  him  ;  he  saw  by  the  wayside  a  corpse  in  a  state  of  de- 
composition. Violently  agitated,  he  returned  home  im- 
mediately, exclaiming  :  "  Woe  unto  me,  what  is  the  use 
of  kingly  splendor,  all  pomp  and  all  enjoyment,  if  they 
cannot  guard  me  from  old  age,  sickness  and  death  !  How 
unhappy  is  mankind !  Is  there  then  no  way  of  forever 
ending  suffering  and  death,  which  are  renewed  with  every 
birth?"  This  question  occupied  him  henceforth  uninter- 
ruptedly.    The  answer  thereto  came  to  him  at  a  subse- 


72        THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

quent  drive.  There  appeared  to  him  an  ascetic  in  yellow 
garb,  as  worn  by  the  Buddhist  brethren,  whose  venerable 
features  clearly  reflected  his  deep  inner  peace.  This  ap- 
parition showed  to  the  prince,  troubled  with  the  enigma 
of  existence,  the  way  on  which  he  had  to  seek  its  solution. 
Henceforth  the  resolution  matured  within  him  to  leave 
the  world  and  to  step  on  the  path  which  everyone  must 
travel  who  strives  for  perfection. 

Battling  with  Mara,  the  Spirit  of  Evil,  and 
studying  the  solutions  of  life's  problems  offered  by 
other  teachers,  Gautama  withdrew  into  the  jungles 
with  five  disciples,  and  there  for  six  years  gave 
himself  up  to  penance.  But  philosophy  and  pen- 
ance alike  were  vain  to  lift  the  dire  burden  of 
existence,  and  his  disciples  also  left  him  and  went 
away.  Then  alone  brooding  deep  he  came  to  the 
haven  of  peace,  pierced  through  to  the  truth  of 
life's  unreality,  dispensed  with  God,  and  found  in 
the  heart's  own  power  of  inward  culture  and  love 
the  adequate  deliverance  from  the  curse  of  the 
lusts  of  the  soul  and  the  will  to  live.  He  had 
renounced  the  world,  and  now  had  entered  into 
the  o-reat  enlightenment.  He  hesitated  at  first  to 
proclaim  his  discovery,  but  his  hesitation  was  not 
long,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty-five  he  started  to 
Benares  to  teach  his  doctrine  of  the  Middle  Path, 
"the  Noble  Eightfold  Path,"  and  ''the  Four 
Noble  Truths." 

On  the  way  to  Benares  he  met  Upaka,  an  as- 
cetic, who  wondered  at  his  beaming  face,  and 
asked  him  what  truth  he  had  discovered  that  made 
his    face    shine.      Gautama  answered:    "I  follow 


BUDDHISM  73 

no  Teacher ;  I  have  overcome  all  foes  ana  all  ^ 
stains;  I  am  superior  to  all  men  and  all  gods;  I 
am  the  absolute  Buddha ;  I  am  going  now  to 
Benares  to  set  in  motion  the  Wheel  of  the  Law  as 
a  king  the  triumphant  wheel  of  his  kingdom.  I 
am  the  Conqueror."  ("Religions  of  Mission 
Fields,"  p.  91.)  At  Benares  he  found  the  five 
disciples  who  had  forsaken  him  and  won  them 
back,  forming  them  with  himself  into  the  first 
Sangha  or  Order  of  Monks.  For  forty-five  years 
he  carried  on  his  mission,  itinerating  through  the 
country  for  eight  months  of  the  year  and  spending 
the  rest  in  meditation  and  the  instruction  of  his 
fast  increasing  disciples.  At  last  the  end  came, 
bright  with  the  hope  of  utter  hopelessness.  "  Be- 
hold now.  Monks,"  he  said  to  a  great  assembly  as 
the  end  drew  near,  "  I  impress  it  upon  you  ;  all 
things  are  subject  to  the  law  of  dissolution ;  press 
on  earnestly  to  perfection ;  soon  the  Tathagata's 
final  extinction  wdll  take  place.  At  the  end  of 
three  months  the  Tathagata  will  enter  on  extinc- 
tion." At  Kusinagara  the  old  man  passed  away, 
saying  with  his  last  breath  to  his  followers,  "Be- 
hold now.  Mendicants,  I  say  to  you  everything 
that  exists  must  pass  away.  Work  out  your  own 
perfection  with  diligence." 

After  Gautama's  death  his  teaching  was  spread   Spread  of 
far  and  wide  over  India.     At  first  the  new  relis:ion  Buddhism. 
worked  inside  the  forms  of  Hinduism  in  spite  of 
its    repudiation    of    caste.     But    soon  the  conflict 
arose  wdiich   ended  in  the  re-absorption  of    Bud- 


74        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

dhism  into  the  old  system.  This  opposition  and 
the  first  success  of  the  new  religion  forced  it  to  a 
development  both  of  its  ideas  and  of  its  organiza- 
tion. These  developments  in  their  extreme  form, 
however,  came  later  and  in  other  lands.  In  India 
for  two  centuries  the  religion  retained  its  general 
character,  and  spread  from  Benares  through  the 
Ganges  Valley.  At  the  end  of  this  time,  Alex- 
ander's campaign  threw  the  country  into  an  anarchy 
out  of  which  arose  a  dominant  kingdom  whose 
king,  an  adventurer  of  low  birth,  was  despised  by 
the  Brahmans  and  in  return  patronized  the  Bud- 
dhist Church.  His  grandson,  Asoka,  who  united 
nearly  the  whole  of  India  under  his  sceptre,  became 
the  Constantine  of  Indian  Buddhism. 

Asoka  formally  acknowledged  to  hold  his  power  and 
possessions  only  as  a  fief  from  the  church,  he  convoked 
an  ecumenic  council  for  the  establishing  of  orthodox 
teaching,  tightened  the  reins  of  church  discipline  by 
the  introduction  of  quinquennial  assemblies  to  be  held  in 
each  diocese,  erected  pagodas  and  endowed  monasteries 
with  great  profusion  in  all  parts  of  India. 

But  the  greatest  work  Asoka  did  was  the  establishing 
of  a  board  for  foreign  missions  (Dharma-Mahamatra) , 
which  sent  forth  to  all  surrounding  countries  enthusiastic 
preachers,  who  went  out  in  self-chosen  poverty,  clad  in 
rags,  with  the  alms-bowl  in  their  hands,  but  supported  by 
the  whole  weight  of  Asoka's  political  and  diplomatic  in- 
fluence. His  own  son,  Mehendra,  went  out  as  a  mission- 
ary to  Ceylon,  and  the  whole  island  forthwith  embraced 
the  faith  of  Buddha. 

At  the  same  time  Cabulistan,  Gandhara,  Cashmere  and 
Nepaul  were  brought  under  the  influence  of  Buddhism, 
and  thenceforth  every  caravan  of  traders  that  left  India 


BUDDHISM  75 

for  Central  Asia  was  accompanied  by  Buddhist  mis- 
sionaries. 

In  this  way  it  happened  that  as  early  as  250  B.  C.  a 
number  of  eighteen  Buddhist  emissaries  reached  China, 
where  they  are  held  in  remembrance  to  the  present  day, 
their  images  occupying  a  conspicuous  place  in  every  large 
temple. 

So  then  we  observe  with  regard  to  these  earliest  Bud- 
dhist missionaries  three  things  which  form  a  remarkable 
parallel  to  the  line  of  movement  followed  by  modern 
Christian  missions  in  Eastern  Asia.  It  is  evident  that 
these  Buddhist  missionaries  went  out,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, with  even  greater  self-abnegation  tl\an  Roman 
Catholic  priests — as  mendicant  monks;  secondly,  they 
followed  in  the  wake  of  trade;  and  thirdly,  they  were 
backed  by  imperial  influence  and  diplomacy.  (Eitel, 
*' Three  Lectures  on  Buddhism,"  pp.  20-22.) 

The  sacred  books  of  Buddhism  embrace  ( i )  the  Sacred  Books. 
Tripitaka,  which  is  the  canon  of  the  Southern 
Buddhists,  and  which  comprises  the  Vinaya 
Pitaka,  a  collection  of  discourses  addressed  to  the 
Order  of  Monks,  the  Dutta  Pitaka,  discourses 
intended  specially  for  the  laity,  and  the  Abhid- 
hamma,  which  develops  the  metaphysics  of  Bud- 
dhism;  (3)  the  commentaries  on  the  Tripitaka, 
called  Arthakatha,  and  (3)  the  canon  of  the 
Northern  Buddhists,  accepted  in  Tibet  and  China. 

None  of  the  books  of  the  Buddhist  Scriptures 
can  at  present  be  satisfactorily  traced  back  of  the 
Council  of  Asoka,  held  at  Patna  about  250  B.  C. 
For  three  centuries  after  Gautama's  death  we  have 
no  proof  of  the  existence  of  a  written  canon.  The 
earliest  completion  of  the  modern  Buddhist  canon 


76  THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

was  in  Ceylon.  There  the  whole  canon  was  first 
compiled  and  fixed  in  writing  between  the  years 
412  and  432  of  the  Christian  era.  The  canon  of 
Chinese  Buddhism,  Eitel  holds,  was  begun  about 
860  and  completed  in  1410  A.  D.  The  modern 
edition  of  it,  known  as  the  Northern  Collection, 
is  of  still  later  date,  having  been  completed  dur- 
ing the  years  1573-1619  A.  D.  Recent  scholars 
fix  earlier  dates  for  the  canon. 

There  are  two  great  differences  between  the 
Buddhist  Scriptures  and  the  Christian  Bible.  In 
the  first  place,  no  inspiration  whatever  is  claimed 
for  the  sacred  books  of  Buddhism.  As  Sir  Monier 
Williams  says:  ''The  characteristic  of  the  Chris- 
tian's Bible  is  that  it  claims  to  be  a  supernatural 
revelation,  yet  it  attaches  no  mystical  talismanic 
virtue  to  the  mere  sound  of  its  words.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  characteristic  of  the  Buddhist  Bible 
is  that  it  utterly  repudiates  all  claim  to  be  a  super- 
natural revelation,  yet  the  very  sound  of  its  words 
is  believed  to  possess  a  meritorious  efficacy  capable 
of  elevating  anyone  who  hears  it  to  heavenly  abodes 
in  future  existences.  In  illustration  I  may  advert 
to  a  legend  current  in  Ceylon  that  once  on  a  time 
five  hundred  bats  lived  in  a  cave  where  two  monks 
daily  recited  the  Buddha's  Law.  These  bats  gained 
such  merit  by  hearing  the  sound  of  the  words  that, 
when  they  died,  they  were  all  reborn  as  men  and 
ultimately  as  gods."  (Williams,  "Buddhism," 
p.  557. )  In  the  second  place,  the  Buddhist  Scrip- 
tures, and  especially  any  extant  manuscripts,  came 


BUDDHISM  77 

long  after  the  life  of  Buddha  and  the  origin  of  the 
religion.  There  is  a  gap  of  nearly  a  thousand 
years,  as  one  writer  puts  it,  in  which  the  record  is 
too  imperfect  for  us  to  be  positive  that  the  Pitakas, 
as  we  now  have  them,  are  the  Scriptures  of  Primi- 
tive Buddhism.  (Bishop,  "Gautama  or  Jesus?" 
p.  28.)  Our  oldest  existing  manuscripts  of  the 
New  Testament  were  written  oije  hundred  years 
before  the  first  edition  of  the  Buddhist  Scriptures 
was  undertaken,  "  Of  the  latter,  not  a  single 
ancient  manuscript  has  withstood  the  ravages  of 
time,  nor  has  any  copy  of  an  ancient  Buddhist 
text  ever  been  examined  critically  by  either  friend 
or  foe  in  the  searching  manner  in  which  all 
the  codices  of  the  New  Testament  have  been 
tested."  (Eitel,  "Three  Lectures  on  Buddhism," 
p.  27.) 

And  what  was  the  doctrine  which  Buddha  Buddha's 
discovered,  which  the  missionaries  went  out  to  Doctrine, 
teach,  and  which  the  sacred  books  enshrined? 
It  rested  on  the  Four  Noble  Truths:  1.  Suffering 
or  sorrow.  Birth,  growth,  decay,  death  all  cause 
sorrow.  All  states  of  mind  which  co-exist  with 
the  consciousness  of  individuality  are  states  of 
suffering.  2.  The  cause  of  suffering.  The 
action  of  the  outer  world  upon  us  excites  delight 
or  desire,  and  these  alike  are  the  cause  of  sorrow. 
3.  The  cessation  of  sorrow.  The  annihilation  of 
all  thirst  and  lust  of  life  is  the  deliverance  from 
sorrow.  4.  The  way  to  deliverance  is  the  Noble 
Eightfold  Path  of 


78        THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

1.  Right  belief.  5.   Right  means  of  livelihood. 

2.  Right  feelings.  6.   Right  endeavor. 

3.  Right  speech.  7.   Right  memory. 

4.  Right  actions.  8.    Right  meditation. 

Arnold's  ''Light  of  Asia"  sets  forth  these 
noble  Truths  in  flowing  verse: — 

The  First  Truth  is  of  Sorrow.      Be  not  mocked ! 

Life  which  je  prize  is  long-drawn  agony: 
Only  its  pains  abide  ;   its  pleasures  are 

As  birds  which  light  and  fly. 
The  Second  Truth  is  Sorrow's  Cause.     What  grief 

Springs  of  itself  and  springs  not  of  Desire? 
Senses  and  things  perceived  mingle  and  light 

Passion's  quick  spark  of  fire. 
The  third  is  Sorrow's  Ceasing.     This  is  peace 

To  conquer  love  of  self  and  lust  of  life, 
To  tear  deep-rooted  passion  from  the  breast, 

To  still  the  inward  strife. 
Then  Sorrow  ends,  for  Life  and  Death  have  ceased ; 

How  should  lamps  flicker  when  their  oil  is  spent? 
The  old  sad  count  is  clear,  the  new  is  clean; 

Thus  hath  a  man  content. 

The  Fourth  Truth  is  The  Way.     It  openeth  wide, 
Plain  for  all  feet  to  tread,  easy  and  near, 

The  Noble  Eightfold  Path;  it  goeth  straight 
To  peace  and  refuge.     Hear! 

On  The  Way  to  the  extinction  of  desire  there 
are  four  stages.  1.  Conversion  following  upon 
(a)  companionship  with  the  good;  (b)  hearing 
of  the  law;  (c)  enlightened  reflection;  or  (d)  the 
practice  of  virtue.  Those  in  the  first  stage  are 
free  successively  from  the  first  three  of  the  Ten 
Fetters:   (1)  from  the  delusion  of  self;   (2)  from 


BUDDHISM  79 

doubt  as  to  the  Buddha  and  his  doctrines,  and  (3) 
from  the  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  rites  and  cere- 
monies. 2.  The  stage  of  those  who  will  return 
only  once  to  this  world.  3.  The  stage  of  those 
who  will  never  return,  from  whom  two  more 
Fetters  have  fallen:  (4)  sensuality,  and  (5)  malev- 
olence. 4o  The  Stage  of  the  Holy  Ones  or 
Arahats,  in  which  men  become  free  from  the 
remaining  Fetters:  (6)  love  of  life  on  earth,  (7) 
desire  for  life  in  heaven,  (8)  pride,  (9)  self- 
righteousness,  and  (10)  ignorance.  When  these 
last  five  are  broken  and  the  Fourth  Stage  is 
passed,  the  Buddhist  believer  becomes  Asekha 
and  passes  beyond  all  delusion  and  sorrow  into 
the  perfect  peace  of  Nirvana.  And  these  stages 
are  not  all  crowded  into  one  life  time.  Life 
after  life  must  be  lived  through  before,  treading 
the  Path,  the  believer  can  attain  the  goal.  All 
evil  and  good  alike  must  be  lived  down  in  the 
wheel  of  Transmigration  before  the  will  to  live  is 
extinct  and  the  calm  of  Nirvana  won. 

This  is  the  core  of  Buddhism.  It  knows  no  No  God  in 
God.  It  unequivocally  denies  the  existence  of  Bu<l<lli"m. 
any  divine  Creator  or  Ruler  of  the  Universe. 
The  ideal  of  God  as  a  personal  Father  is  entirely 
alien  and  impossible  to  it.  (Gogerly,  "The 
Kristiyani  Prajnopati,"  Parti,  pp.  74-105.)  The 
Buddhist  Catechism  of  Subhadra  Bhikshu,  pub- 
lished by  the  Maha  Bodhi  Society  of  Ceylon  and 
officially  approved,  in  answer  to  the  question, 
"Did  a  god-creator  call   the  world   into  existence 


80        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

by  his  will?"  replies,  ''There  is  no  god-creator 
upon  whose  grace  or  will  the  existence  of  the 
world  depends.  Everything  originates  and 
develops  by  and  out  of  itself,  by  virtue  of  its  own 
will  and  according  to  its  inner  nature  and  condi- 
tion (its  karma).  Only  the  ignorance  of  man  has 
invented  a  personal  god-creator.  The  Buddhists, 
however,  absolutely  reject  the  belief  in  a  personal 
god,  and  consider  the  doctrine  of  a  creation  out 
of  nothing  a  delusion."  The  Buddhism  of 
Gautama  and  of  all  who  hold  his  doctrine 
unchanged  is  pure  atheism. 
And  No  Soul  And  not  only  did  Gautama  deny  the  existence 
n  Man.  ^f   Qod.     He  denied,   also,  the   existence  of  the 

soul.  The  first  of  the  Ten  Fetters  is  the  heresy 
of  individuality,  which  must  be  abandoned  on  the 
threshold  of  the  Path  to  holiness.  The  very  doc- 
trine of  the  soul  or  personal  self  is  declared  to  be 
a  fountain  of  evil.  It  is  held  to  constitute  with 
sensuality,  heresy  and  ritualism  the  cause  of 
sorrow  and  suffering  and  despair.  It  was  impos- 
sible, of  course,  for  Gautama  to  deny  the  reality 
of  sentient  existence.  His  very  purpose  was  to 
escape  from  it.  His  teaching  was  that  it  had  five 
elements  or  Skandhas:  1,  The  organized  body; 
2,  sensation;  3,  perception;  4,  discrimination, 
and  5,  consciousness;  and  Buddhism  sees  these  to 
be  five  steps  in  an  endless  chain  of  cause  and 
effect.  Existence,  it  is  said,  is  caused  by  (1) 
ignorance  or  delusion;  ignorance  produced  (2) 
action;     from    action     arises    (3)    consciousness, 


BUDDHISM  81 

thence  (4)  substantiality,  thence  (5)  the  six  organs 
of  perception  (eye,  ear,  nose,  tongue,  body  and 
mind) ;  from  the  action  of  these  organs  arises  (6) 
sensation,  thence  comes  (7)  perception ;  thence 
(8)  desire  or  lust;  from  this  desire  springs  (9)  the 
cleaving  to  existence,  which  produces  (10)  indi- 
vidual existence;  the  latter  finds  its  expression  in 
(11)  birth,  but  birth  invariably  produces  (12)  de- 
crepitude and  death ;  and  death,  though  it  breaks 
up  the  above-mentioned  five  constituents  (Skand- 
has)  of  individual  life,  leaves  behind  the  repro- 
ductive power,  a  germ  as  it  were,  which  has  to 
run  the  same  round  again  through  ignorance, 
action,  consciousness  and  so  forth.  (Eitel, 
''Three  Lectures  on  Buddhism,"  p,  86.)  In  all 
this,  or  back  of  this,  there  was  no  personal  soul 
or  individuality  whose  immortality  could  frustrate 
the  effort  to  escape  from  the  unrest  of  existence 
into  Nirvana  and  its  calm.  (Hardy,  ''Manual  of 
Buddhism,"  Ch.  IX.)  The  Buddhist  Catechism, 
in  a  note  on  the  soul,  is  explicit  in  its  statement: — 

The  widespread  belief  in  an  immortal  soul  within 
us — that  is,  an  individual  entity,  endowed  with  knowl- 
edge, differing  from  others,  created  or  come  into  exist- 
ence, and  nevertheless  eternal — arises  principally  from 
the  egotistical  desire  for  eternal,  personal  continued 
existence.  Hence  this  superstition  is  a  consequence  of 
the  deluded  will-to-live,  and  belongs  to  the  "ten  fetters" 
which  chain  man  to  existence  and  prevent  his  salvation. 
To  understand  that  after  all  it  is  the  individuality,  with 
its  wants  and  desires  opposed  to  those  of  other  individ- 
ualities, which   causes   all    suffering   in   the   world,  that 


82         THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

therefore  the  striving  for  individual  happiness  is  accord- 
ing to  its  verj  nature  wrong,  and  that  it  is  best  to 
relinquish  it  voluntarily — that  is  to  take  a  great  step, 
yea  the  greatest,  on  the  road  to  true  knowledge.  But 
man  wants  to  preserve  his  individuality  at  any  price ; 
hence  the  popularity  of  those  religions  which  promise 
eternal  continued  existence  of  the  individuality  ;  hence 
the  never-ending  struggle  for  existence  ;  hence  all  suffer- 
ing, all  sorrow,  of  which  life  is  full ;  hence  the  difficulty 
of  emancipation.  "Individuality  is  a  burning  fire,  O 
disciples.  And  by  what  is  it  kindled.''  By  lust,  ill-will 
and  delusion." 

This  was  Buddha's  doctrine.  "Mendicants," 
said  he  in  concluding  a  sermon  to  his  monks, 
speaking  of  death,  ''that  which  binds  the  Teacher 
to  existence  (viz.,  tanha,  thirst)  is  cut  off;  but 
his  body  still  remains.  While  his  body  shall 
remain  he  will  be  seen  by  gods  and  men,  but 
after  the  termination  of  life,  upon  the  dissolution 
of  the  body,  neither  gods  nor  men  will  see  him." 
(Rhys  Davids,  "Buddhism,"  p.  99.) 

But  if  there  is  no  soul,  what  is  there  to  pass 
into  Nirvana.?  What  meaning  is  there  in 
Buddha's  doctrine  of  transmigration?  What  is  it 
that  is  reborn  in  the  long  pursuit  of  Nirvana 
through  unnumbered  successive  lives .^^  What 
moves  through  the  stages  of  the  Noble  Path  ? 
What  is  salvation,  or  deliverance.?  What  is  there 
to  be  saved  or  delivered.?  The  Buddhist  Cate- 
chism answers: — 

What  then  is  it  in  us  that  is  reborn.'' 

Our    will-to-live    and    our    moral    character.     These 


BUDDHISM  83 

form  the  core  of  our  being,  and  create  for  themselves 
after  the  disintegration  of  our  present  body  a  new  one, 
corresponding  exactly  to  their  nature. 

Is  not  the  individual  will-to-live  or  individuality 
the  same  as  what  is  called  "soul?" 

No,  it  is  not  the  same.  The  belief  in  an  "immortal 
soul" — that  is,  an  indivisible,  eternal  and  indestructible 
entity,  which  has  only  taken  up  its  temporary  abode  in 
the  body — Buddhism  considers  an  error,  based  on  igno- 
rance of  the  true  nature  of  being  and  of  living  beings. 
Buddhism  teaches  no  "transmigration  of  souls"  (metemp- 
sychosis) but  the  new  formation  of  the  individual  in 
the  material  world  of  phenomena  in  virtue  of  its  will  to 
live  (Tanha)  and  its  moral  character  (Karma). 

Then  the  being  which  is  reborn  is  not  the  same 
which  died? 

It  is  not  the  same  and  not  another.  It  may  seem  to 
be  another  to  a  man  still  in  the  state  of  ignorance,  who 
wrongly  identifies  the  personal  ego-consciousness  with 
his  true  being.  He  who  has  attained  wisdom  knows 
that  his  real  being  is  his  tanha  and  his  karma;  but  that 
the  recurring  ego-contciousness  is  only  a  transient 
phenomenon,  to  be  compared  to  the  torch  lit  by  a 
wanderer  at  night  to  find  his  way.  When  he  does  not 
need  it  any  more,  he  extinguishes  it,  to  light  a  new 
torch  for  a  later  wandering.  Thus,  though  the  ego- 
consciousness  may  change,  it  is  in  a  sense  by  the  tie  of 
Karma  always  the  same  individuality  which  in  one  birth 
does  the  good  or  bad  deed  and  in  the  next  reaps  the 
fruits  of  these  deeds,  though  in  the  absence  of  any  sub- 
stance passing  from  one  life  to  the  next  it  is  not  abso- 
lutely the  same. 

This   may  seem   elusive,   but   to  the   Buddhist  Karma. 
Karma    is    the    most    real    of    realities.       (Rhys 
Davids,  ''Hibbert  Lectures,"  1881,  Lecture  IIL) 
Men   have  a  lust  to  live.      It   is   this   that    sends 


84        THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

them  back   into   the  world  again.      The  Buddhist 
Catechism  sets  forth  the  pure  Buddhist  doctrine: — 

Can  everybody  attain  Nirvana  already  in  the  present 
birth? 

Only  very  few  can.  Most  men  have  so  defective  a 
mental  and  moral  nature,  as  the  result  of  their  deeds  in 
former  births,  that  they  require  many  rebirths  before 
they  have  perfected  themselves  svifficiently  to  gain 
release.  But  every  one  who  earnestly  strives  can  gain  a 
rebirth  under  favorable  conditions. 

Does  our  rebirth  depend  solely  upon  ourselves? 

Entirely  upon  our  inner  nature,  our  will.  This 
craving  desire  (tanha),  based  on  ignorance  (avijja) 
which  pervades  us  all  and  forms  the  essence  of  our 
being,  is  the  real  creative  power;  it  is  what  other  reli- 
gions personify  as  god ;  it  is  the  cause  of  our  existence 
and  our  rebirth,  and  in  truth  the  creator,  preserver  and 
destroyer  of  all  things — the  real  trinity. 

Are  the  nature  and  quality  of  our  rebirth  also  depend- 
ent upon  ourselves? 

Yes.  The  nature  and  quality  of  our  rebirth  are 
dependent  upon  our  Karma. 

What  is  Karma? 

Karma  is  our  action  ;  our  merit  and  our  guilt  in  a 
moral  sense.  If  our  merit  preponderates,  we  are  reborn 
in  a  higher  scale  of  beings,  or  as  man  in  favorable  cir- 
cumstances ;  but  if  we  are  heavily  laden  with  guilt,  the 
necessary  consequence  is  a  rebirth  in  a  lower  forin  and 
full  of  suffering. 

Are  not  our  actions  the  natural  result  of  our  inborn 
individual  character? 

Certainly.  But  this  inborn  character  is  nothing  else 
than  the  product  of  our  Karma  ;  /.  e.,  of  all  our  thoughts, 
words  and  deeds  in  former  lives.  We  are  in  every 
moment  of  our  existence  exactly  what  we  have  made 
ourselves  to  be,  and  we  enjoy  and  suffer  only  what  we 
deserve. 


BUDDHISM  85 

It  is  out  of  this  will  to  live  and  this  grip  of  Nirvana. 
Karma  that  the  Buddhist  hopes  to  escape  at  last 
into  Nirvana.  And  what  is  Nirvana?  It  is  the 
extinction  of  the  will  to  live,  either  here  or  else- 
where. In  it  Karma  is  clean  spent.  Nothing  is 
left  that  could  be  reborn.  Nirvana  literally 
means  ''to  be  extinguished,  to  be  blown  out  like 
a  flame  blown  out  by  the  wind  or  extinguished 
for  want  of  fuel."  (Buddhist  Catechism,  p.  61.) 
It  is,  as  the  Buddhists  say,  "a  state  of  mind  and 
heart  in  which  all  desire  for  life  or  annihilation, 
all  egotistic  craving  has  become  extinct,  and  with 
it  every  passion,  every  grasping  desire,  every 
fear,  all  ill-will,  and  every  sorrow.  It  is  a  state 
of  perfect  inward  peace,  accompanied  by  the 
imperturbable  certainty  of  having  attained  deliv- 
erance,— a  state  words  cannot  describe,  and 
which  the  imagination  of  the  worldling  tries  in 
vain  to  j)icture  to  himself.  Only  one  who  has 
himself  experienced  it  knows  what  Nirvana  is." 
(Buddhist  Catechism,  p.  22.)  In  a  note  the 
Catechism  admits  that  Parinirvana,  the  ulterior 
Nirvana,  "in  the  sense  of  other  religions  and  of 
scientific  materialism,  is  indeed  total  annihilation, 
complete  dissolution  of  the  individuality,  for  noth- 
ing remains  in  Parinirvana  which  in  any  way 
corresponds  to  the  human  conception  of  exist- 
ence." (p.  61.)  And  this  is  what  it  must  seem 
to  us  unless  we  breathe  into  Buddhism's  theory 
of  man  the  life  of  a  soul.  What  it  meant  to 
Buddha    we    cannot    be    sure.      ''He    may    have 


86        THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

looked  upon  Nirvana  as  a  state  of  personal 
immortality,  in  which  the  spirit,  exempt  from  the 
eddies  of  transmigration,  revels  in  the  enjoyment 
of  unlimited  happiness  arising  from  the  annihila- 
tion of  all  desire.  On  the  other  hand,  he  may 
have  viewed  Nirvana  as  a  state  of  absolute  anni- 
hilation of  personality  and  individual  existence. 
It  is  impossible  to  decide  which  of  the  two  views 
Buddha  actually  held.  But  I  am  inclined  to 
think  he  most  probably  left  the  question  undecided 
in  his  own  mind."  (Eitel,  ''Three  Lectures  on 
Buddhism,"  p.  88  f.) 
The  EtKics  of  With  no  God  to  help  him,  man's  struggle  for 
Buddhism.  Nirvana  becomes  in  Buddhism  a  discipline  of 
self-culture,  as  ''The  Buddhist"  proudly  declared 
in  the  editorial  which  has  been  quoted.  Its 
philosophy  defines  its  ends,  but  its  ethics  pre- 
scribes its  means.  It  calls  for  self-conquest  and 
a  life  of  virtue  and  benevolence,  not  active  and 
disturbing,  but  passive  and  calm,  abstaining  from 
all  evil  act  or  evil  thought,  and  seeking  that  sub- 
jugation of  all  desire  and  all  will,  even  the  desire 
to  see  good  and  the  will  to  live  to  do  it,  which 
will  issue  at  last  in  "lifeless,  timeless  bliss." 
Of  self-conquest  the  Dhammapada  says,  "If  one 
man  conquer  in  battle  a  thousand  times  a  thousand 
men,  and  if  another  conquer  himself,  he  is  the 
greatest  of  conquerors."  But  "to  attain  the 
Buddhist  ideal,  self-conquest  must  be  carried  so 
far  as  to  eliminate  all  personal  affection  for 
friends  or  relations.      Thus  in  the  Vessantara,  the 


BUDDHISM  87 

last  of  the  Jataka  stories  of  the  rebirths  of 
Buddha,  we  are  told  that  the  final  act  of  self- 
conquest  by  which  Buddha  qualified  himself  to  be 
born  as  Buddha,  was  the  giving  up  to  a  Brahman 
who  wanted  them  as  his  slaves,  first  his  two  chil- 
dren and  then  his  wife.  When  asked  to  surrender 
his  w^fe,  he  did  not  reply,  ''Yesterday  I  gave  my 
children  to  the  Brahman;  how  can  I  give  Maddi 
to  you  to  be  left  alone  in  the  forest?"  No!  he 
was  as  though  receiving  a  purse  of  gold,  of  a 
thousand  pieces  of  gold;  indifferent,  unattached, 
with  no  clinging  of  mind  he  gave  her  up. 
(Robinson,  "The  Interpretation  of  the  Character 
of  Christ  to  Non-Christian  Races,"  p.  68.) 
And  so  also  the  Buddhist  ideal  of  benevolence 
aims  at  the  utter  extinction  of  active  love  as  well 
as  of  hate.  The  distinctive  ideal  of  Christian 
love  as  the  will  to  serve  and  to  live  in  order  to 
serve,  Buddhism  repudiates.  In  the  Dhamma- 
pada  we  read,  ''Let  no  man  love  anything;  loss 
of  the  beloved  is  evil.  Those  who  love  nothing 
and  hate  nothing  have  no  fetters."  ("Dhamma- 
pada, "  p.  211.)  "From  love  comes  grief,  from 
love  comes  fear;  he  who  is  free  from  love  knows 
neither  grief  nor  fear. "  (P.  215.)  Gautama  is 
represented  as  saying,  "Those  who  cause  me  pain 
and  those  who  cause  me  joy,  to  all  I  am  alike; 
affection  and  hatred  I  know  not."  (Robinson, 
"Interpretation  of  the  Character  of  Christ  to 
Non-Christian  Races,"  p.  70.) 

Nevertheless,    it  was   the   ethics    of   Buddhism   Caste. 


88         THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

that  constituted  the  really  noble  teaching  of 
Gautama.  It  renounced  caste,  although  in  Cey- 
lon where  Buddhism  is  at  its  purest,  and  where 
it  has  prevailed  for  over  two  thousand  years,  caste 
exercises  a  strong  influence.  "All  castes,  how- 
ever low,  were  supposed  to  be  eligible  to 
Buddha's  priesthood,  but  in  Ceylon  ordination 
gradually  became  the  privilege  of  the  Vellala 
caste  alone,  until  a  Sinhalese  of  a  lower  caste 
went  to  Burma  and  got  ordained,  the  second 
priestly  order  being  open  to  three  castes  outside 
the  Vellalas,  but  refusing  any  of  the  other  castes 
— so  making  two  castes  of  priests  in  the  island." 
(Ferguson,  "Ceylon  in  1903,"  p.  137.)  Still, 
in  its  general  influence.  Buddhism  ministered  to 
human  brotherhood. 

Buddhism  had  its  ten  commandments  or  vows. 
The  first  five  of  these  are  binding  on  all  Bud- 
dhists:— 

1.  Not  to  kill  or  injure  any  living  being. 

2.  Not  to  take  anything  which  does  not  belong  to  me 
or  has  not  been  given  to  me  voluntarily. 

3.  To  abstain  from  all  sexual  excess  and  incontinence. 

4.  Not  to  He,  deceive,  or  slander. 

6.  To  abstain  from  all  intoxicants  and  excitants. 

The  next  three  are  not  obligatory  upon  common 
believers,  but  are  recommended  to  all  pious  lay- 
men : — 

6.  Not  to  eat  at  improper  times;  {.  e.,  not  to  take 
solid  food  after  midday. 

7.  To  abstain  from  dancing,  the  singing  of  worldly 
songs,  from   attending   plays  or  musical    performances ; 


BUDDHISM  89 

in    short,   to    abstain    from    all    worldly    and    distracting 
amusements. 

8.  To  avoid  the  use  of  ornaments  of  every  kind,  of 
perfumes,  fragrant  oils  or  ointments;  in  short,  anything 
that  tends  to  vanity. 

These  eight  and  two  more  are  obligatory  upon 
all  priests,  the  additional  two  being, — 

9.  To  abandon  the  use  of  luxurious  beds,  to  sleep  on 
a  hard,  low  couch,  and  to  avoid  all  and  every  worldli- 
ness. 

10.  To  live  always  in  voluntary  poverty. 

There  are  also  ten  sins:  three  of  the  body,  Sins  and 
murder,  theft  and  adultery;  four  of  the  speech,  Duties. 
lying,  slander,  abuse  and  unprofitable  conversa- 
tion; and  three  of  the  mind,  covetousness,  malice 
and  skepticism.  There  are  six  relationships  with 
mutual  obligations:  parent  and  child,  teacher  and 
scholar,  priest  and  householder,  husband  and 
wife,  master  and  servant,  friend  and  friend.  The 
ethical  teaching  of  Buddhism  was  not  without  its 
limitations.  In  the  matter  of  lying,  for  example, 
four  things  were  necessary  to  constitute  a  lie:  "1. 
There  must  be  the  utterance  of  the  thing  that  is 
not.  2.  There  must  be  the  knowledge  that  it  is 
not.  3.  There  must  be  some  endeavor  to  prevent 
the  person  addressed  from  learning  the  truth.  4. 
There  must  be  the  discovery  by  the  person  de- 
ceived that  what  has  been  told  him  is  not  true." 
(Hardy,  ''A  Manual  of  Buddhism,"  p.  486.) 
But  there  have  been  Christian  teachers  like 
Jeremy  Taylor  who  taught  that   it  was   right  to 


90         THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

lie  to  children  and  to  insane  people.      Gautama's 
personal  doctrine  was  nobler  than  that. 
TKe  SangKa  But   it  may  be   asked,  how  could  society  exist 

Priesthood.  ^^^  ethical  relationships,  calling  for  positive 
feelings  and  action,  be  maintained  under  the 
Buddhist  philosophy  that  all  desire  and  all  life 
were  evil?  The  new  religion,  like  Christianity 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  was  tempered  to  human 
weakness,  and  different  orders  of  disciples  were 
established.  The  Sangha,  or  order  of  the  priest- 
hood, alone  renounced  life  with  its  action  and 
relationship,  and  the  great  body  of  laymen  were 
appointed  a  less  exacting  path.  Christians  who 
have  found  a  way  to  live  on  a  different  plane 
from  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  or  the  spiritual 
experience  of  St.  Paul,  and  still  regard  them- 
selves as  followers  of  Christ,  must  not  be  over 
severe  on  the  working  adaptation  of  Buddhism. 
The  Buddhist  Catechism  defines  the  two  orders 
of  Buddhists  as  follows:  ^^The  Upasakos,  or  lay 
followers  of  the  doctrine,  take  only  the  five  gen- 
eral vows,  and  try  to  the  best  of  their  power  to 
live  up  to  the  precepts  of  virtuous  conduct  and 
benevolence  contained  in  the  Sigalovada-Suttam, 
but  remain  in  the  world  and  faithfully  perform 
their  duties  as  members  of  a  family  and  citizens. 
The  Bhikkhus,  however,  the  true  disciples  of  the 
Buddha,  renounce  the  world  completely,  join  the 
Brotherhood  of  the  Elect,  take  the  ten  vows,  and 
regulate  their  life  entirely  according  to  the  rules 
contained  in  the  Vinayo." 


BUDDHISM  91 

The  priesthood  from  the  outset  was  required  to 
renounce  all  worldly  activity,  to  go  forth  from 
home  into  homelessness,  to  live  in  monasteries  or 
as  hermits,  to  give  themselves  wholly  to  self- 
inspection  and  meditation  and  moral  self-culture, 
and  to  seek  only  the  goal  of  Nirvana.  Through 
the  priesthood  is  the  only  path  to  salvation.  "In 
the  worldly  life,'*  says  the  Catechism,  "the 
thorough  fulfillment  of  the  Ten  Vows,  the  throw- 
ing off  of  the  Ten  Fetters — in  short,  the  total 
annihilation  of  desire,  hatred,  and  delusion — are 
almost  impossible.  All  worldly  activity  rests  in 
the  main  on  selfishness  and  ignorance."  It  is  not 
surprising  that  it  was  charged,  "as  the  earliest 
teachings  of  the  Buddhist  authorities  distinctly 
show,  that  the  way  to  Nirvana  which  he  (Gua- 
tama)  preached,  involving,  as  it  did,  the  extin- 
guishing of  all  natural  desire,  either  of  what  was 
reckoned  good  or  evil,  and  the  adoption  of  a 
celibate  and  mendicant  life,  would  break  up 
families,  and,  practically  carried  out,  would 
put  an  end  to  society.  This  charge  the  Buddha 
seems  to  have  met  by  simply  replying  that  what 
they  thought  so  evil  was  in  truth  the  very  best 
thing  that  could  be.  Still,  a  social  community 
outside  the  society  of  the  mendicant  disciples  was 
an  absolute  necessity  to  the  very  existence  of  the 
latter.  Beggars  must  have  people  to  beg  from. 
And  thus  it  appears  to  have  become  practically 
necessary,  from  almost  the  very  first,  to  devise 
some  plan  which   should   at  once   permit  of  the 


92         THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

propagation  of  the  new  religion,  while  yet  allow- 
ing the  existence  of  families  and  business  com- 
munities. This  need  was  met  by  the  promulga- 
tion of  a  secondary  system  of  observances,  which 
might  be  kept  while  yet  the  man  need  not  leave 
the  life  of  the  householder.  Not  by  these  observ- 
ances, indeed,  could  Nirvana  be  attained,  but 
their  observance  would  at  least  render  this  present 
life  more  tolerable,  and  conduce  in  the  next  life 
to  the  attainment  of  conditions  of  existence  more 
favorable  than  the  jDresent  to  the  securing  of  that 
longed-for  blessing. "  (Kellogg,  "The  Light  of 
Asia  and  the  Light  of  the  World,"  pp.  61,  62.) 

The  fundamental  weakness  of  Buddhist  ethics 
appears  here.  It  was  not  a  morality  designed  to 
make  men  fit  for  human  fellowship  and  service. 
It  was  a  system  planned  to  deliver  men  from  life. 
It  stamped  every  occupation  or  trade  as  incom- 
patible with  the  highest  type  of  life.  It  required 
deliverance  from  every  attachment  and  interest. 
Of  the  true  Brahmana,  the  truly  religious  man, 
Gautama  said: — 

Whosoever  amongst  men  lives  bj  different  mechani- 
cal arts  .   .   .   he  is  an  artisan,  not  a  Brahmana. 

Whosoever  amongst  men  lives  bj  trade  ...  he  is  a 
merchant,  not  a  Brahmana. 

Whosoever  amongst  men  lives  bj  serving  others  .  .  . 
he  is  a  servant,  not  a  Brahmana. 

Whosoever  amongst  men  possesses  villages  and  coun- 
tries ...   he  is  a  king,  not  a  Brahmana. 

And  not  only  work  but  also  learning  was  to  be 
escaped  as  a  snare  and  a  hindrance.      The  saint 


BUDDHISM  93 

is    one    who    "is    no    follower    of    philosophical 
views,   nor   a   friend   of  knowledge;    and   having 
penetrated  the  opinions  that  have  arisen  amongst 
people,  he  is  indifferent  to  learning,  while  others 
acquire  it."      (Sutta  Nipata;  Mahaviyuha  Sutta, 
17;  ''Sacred  Books   of  the  East,"  Vol.  X,  Part 
2,  p.  174.     Quoted   in   Kellogg,  ''The  Light  of 
Asia  and  the  Light  of  the  World,"  pp.  321,  384.) 
And  not  only  are  the  ethics  of   Buddhism  un- 
social    in    the   sense   of    deprecating  work     and 
learning,  the  very  essentials   of  human  progress, 
but  the  whole   system   is   radically  self-centered. 
Though     it     denies    the   human    personality,    its 
atheism  only  serves  to  make  of  the  human  person- 
ality  the    center   and   goal    of    all    things.      Paul 
Dahlke,  whom  the  Buddhist  world  has   hailed  as 
a   prophet,    says   distinctly  on  this   point,    "The 
mind    of     Prince    Siddartha,      called     Guatama, 
became  entirely  occupied  with  this  one  fact,  that 
all  life  is  sorrow,  and  in  the  strenuous  concentra- 
tion  of   all   his  powers  upon  this   one  point,  he 
seeks   to  save  himself  from  this  sorrow  ...   he 
seeks   his   own  salvation,   and  that   only.      It  is  a  ' 
purely  egoistical  impulse,  but  what  more  natural  ! 
than   that  one   who' suddenly  finds   himself   in   a  \ 
burning    house   should   seek   first   of  all   to   save 
himself?"      The    impulse    may    be   natural,    but 
public  opinion,  educated  by  the  spirit  of   Christ, 
would  not  tolerate  the  action  in  a  Christian  coun- 
try ;   the  man  who  left  women  and  children  to  burn 
would  carry  a  stigma  for  the  rest  of  his  days. 


94        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Dr.  Dahlke  goes  on  to  show  that  as  in  Gau- 
tama's early  experience,  so  in  his  ethical  system 
he  shows  a  refined  selfishness:  "The  greatest  gift 
of  love  is  not  bestowed  in  the  interest  of  the 
receiver  thereof;  the  giver  bestows  it  in  his  own 
interest.  .  .  .  The  whole  moral  scheme  in  Bud- 
dhism is  nothing  but  a  sum  in  arithmetic  set  down 
by  a  cold  clear  egoism;  so  much  as  I  give  to 
others,  so  much  will  come  again  to  me.  .  .  .  The 
Buddhist  indeed,  with  sober  understanding,  strives 
strenuously  to  avoid  every  contact  with  his  neigh- 
bor. If,  however,  the  latter  comes  in  contact 
with  him,  then  he  shall  behave  towards  him  as 
his  own  best  welfare  would  demand."  (Quoted 
in  ''Trinity  College  Magazine,"  Kandy,  June, 
1909.  Article,  ''Are  the  Ethics  of  Buddhism 
Social?"  pp.  340,  341,  343.) 
Ttree  Otter  Three  other  points  in  Buddhist  ethics  deserve 

Weaknesses.  a  moment's  attention.  (1)  However  inadequate 
its  negative  teaching  may  be,  it  is  said,  at  least 
Buddhism  has  produced  a  spirit  of  kindness  and 
consideration  toward  life,  both  of  men  and  ani- 
mals. This  is  true,  but  "in  Ceylon,  for  example, 
where  the  great  majority  of  the  people  are  pro- 
fessed Buddhists,  the  Buddhist  teaching  as  to  the 
duty  of  benevolence  does  not  prevent  its  people 
from  committing  more  murders  than  any  other 
people  in  the  world  (of  whom  trustworthy  records 
exist)  in  proportion  to  their  numbers."  (Robin- 
son, "The  Interpretation  of  the  Character  of 
Christ  to  Non-Christian  Races,"  p.  72.)     And  it 


BUDDHISM  95 

is  open  to  question  whether  animals  are  any 
better  cared  for  in  Buddhist  lands  than  among  us. 
(See  Ferguson,  '^Ceylon  in  1903,"  ^.  137  f.) 
(2)  The  underlying  principles  of  Gautama's 
teaching,  involving  a  belief  in  the  misery  of 
existence  and  the  curse  of  birth,  reacted  upon 
the  conception  of  v^omanhood.  She  was  the 
doorway  of  sorrow.  In  Buddha's  original  plan 
she  had  no  place  in  his  Order,  and  so  was  ineligi- 
ble to  salvation.  Indeed  in  Buddhism  her  only 
hope  of  reaching  Nirvana  is  through  rebirth  as  a 
man.  (Eitel,  ''Three  Lectures  on  Buddhism," 
p.  83.)  ''The  home  life  is  pain,  the  seat  of 
impurity,"  say  the  Buddhist  Scriptures.  "So 
long  as  the  love  of  man  toward  women,  even  the 
smallest,  is  not  destroyed,  so  long  is  his  mind  in 
bondage."  (3)  But  it  is  said  Buddhism  at  least 
is  to  be  admired  for  the  spirit  of  toleration.  In 
this  regard  it  has  been  greatly  praised  in  contrast 
to  Christianity  with  its  exclusive  claims.  But 
the  toierance  of  Buddhism  springs  from  the  prin- 
ciple of  indifference,  from  the  suppression  of  all 
emotion  and  desire,  from  its  pure  subjectivism. 
"Often  when  a  layman  asks  his  priest  'Does 
Buddha  exist,'  the  reply  will  be,"  writes  the 
Rev.  J  E.  Hail  of  Japan,  "  'If  you  believe  that 
the  Buddha  exists,  then  for  you  he  does  exist; 
but  if  you  believe  that  he  is  not  existent,  then  for 
you  he  does  not  exist.'  "  Tolerance  loses  its 
ethical  significance  in  such  circumstances,  and  in 
its  very  nature  Buddhism  must  lay  aside  any  feel- 


96        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

ing  of   intolerance  because   it   must   lay  aside  all 
feelings   whatever.      Its    heaven    is    the    state    of 
mind  where  nothing  matters. 
Development  The  BuddhIsm  which  we  have  thus  far  consid- 

and  Division.      ^^^^     ^^^^     1^^^^^     j^^     ^j^^     ^^^j^^     ^j^^     Buddhism     of 

Gautama  and  of  the  stream  of  tradition  most 
faithful  to  the  primitive  faith.  But  no  religion 
has  undergone  more  revolutionary  transformation 
than  Buddhism.  The  radical  distinction  be- 
tween the  Mahayana,  or  Greater  Vehicle,  Bud- 
dhism and  the  Hinayana,  or  Small  Vehicle,  began, 
it  may  be  said,  on  the  day  that  Gautama  died, 
and  the  breach  has  widened  with  each  passing 
year.  (Lloyd,  ''Wheat  Among  the  Tares,"  p. 
2f.)  ''The  Buddhist  Church  of  Ceylon,  with 
its  dependencies  in  Burma  and^  Siam,  ma.in- 
tained  with  great  tenacity  the  original  teaching 
of  early  Buddhism  in  comparative  purity,  while 
the  Northern  Buddhists, — that  is  to  say,  those  of 
Northern  India,  Cashmere,  Nepaul,  and  after- 
wards those  of  China,  Tibet  and  Mongolia, — went 
on  constantly  adding  to  and  expanding  the  com- 
mon stock  of  doctrines  and  traditions,  and  enter- 
ing into  compromises  with  any  form  of  popular 
superstition  they  found  too  deep-rooted  and  too 
popular  to  overcome."  (Eitel,  "Three  Lectures 
on  Buddhism,"  p.  23.)  Yet  even  in  the  south 
Buddhism  gathered  up  much  animism,  and  in 
Siam  and  Burma  to-day,  and  also  in  Ceylon 
itself,  mingles  the  native  spirit  worship  with  the 
purer  faith.      It  is  here  in  the  south,  however,  in 


BUDDHISM  97 

Ceylon,  that  the  ancient  doctrine  is  most  firmly 
held  and  ardently  propagated  with  the  adaptation 
of  the  methods  of  Christian  missions,  and  with 
skillful  use  of  all  the  anti-Christian  material 
which  can  be  drawn  from  Western  skepticism 
and  destructive  criticism.  Southern  Buddhism, 
however,  has  lost  the  greater  part  of  its  ancient 
territory,  and  would  have  lost  more  if  it  had  not 
spread  over  the  orthodox  philosophy  of  Buddhism 
a  covering  of  religious  ideas  logically  at  variance 
with  it,  but  necessary  to  the  religious  nature  of 
man. 

The  changes  introduced  in  Northern  Buddhism,  Northern 
however,  were  vastly  greater.  In  Tibet  the  Bud-  Buddhism. 
dhist  clergy  established  a  hereditary  hierarchy 
which  gained  the  mastery  over  all  the  kings  rul- 
ing the  country,  and  combined  in  the  hands  of 
the  priesthood  the  supreme  temporal  and  spiritual 
government  of  the  nation,  with  a  doctrine  of  per- 
petual succession  of  Grand  Lamas,  or  supreme 
pontiffs,  by  successive  reincarnation.  When  each 
Grand  Lama  dies,  search  is  at  once  made  for  the 
babe  in  whom  he  is  supposed  to  have  become 
reincarnate.  The  Tibetan  Church  is  a  great 
organization,  duplicating  the  whole  scheme  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  'Svith  its  shaven 
priests,  its  bells,  and  rosaries,  its  images,  and 
holy  water,  and  gorgeous  dresses;  its  service 
with  double  choirs,  and  processions,  and  creeds, 
and  mystic  rites,  and  incense,  in  which  the  laity 
are  spectators   only;    its   abbots  and  monks,   and 


98         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

nuns  of  many  grades;  its  worship  of  the  double 
Virgin,  and  of  the  saints  and  angels;  its  fasts, 
confessions,  and  purgatory;  its  images,  its  idols, 
and  its  pictures;  its  huge  monasteries,  and  its 
gorgeous  cathedrals,  its  powerful  hierarchy,  its 
cardinals,  its  pope  ...  in  spite  of  the  essential 
difference  of  its  teachings,  and  of  its  mode  of 
thought."  (Rhys  Davids,  "Buddhism,"  p. 
250.)  Buddhism  introduced  a  literary  culture 
and  some  measure  of  civilization  into  Tibet,  but 
it  appears  never  to  have  lifted  a  finger  against  the 
custom  of  polyandry.  Indeed  Lamaism  sanc- 
tioned it.  As  a  result,  the  Buddhls-t  Tibetans  do 
not  increase  in  numbers,  and  immorality,  nurtured 
by  polyandry,  has  undermined  the  powers  of 
increase  of  the  people.  (''The  Pioneer,"  Alla- 
habad, India,  Oct.  26,  1908,  citing  Francke, 
"History  of  Western  Tibet.")  In  religion  the 
Tibetan  Buddhists  are  notable  for  their  labor-sav- 
ing contrivances,  the  prayer  wheels  and  prayer 
mills  and  praying  flags  in  which  written  prayers 
are  rotated  by  wind,  or  water,  or  mechanical 
device.  But  it  is  not  all  form.  At  Lhassa,  the 
capital  of  Tibet,  "in  the  evening,  just  as  the  day 
is  verging  on  its  decline,"  says  a  French  mis- 
sionary, "all  the  Tibetans  stop  business  and  meet 
together,  men,  women  and  children,  according  to 
their  sex  and  age,  in  the  principal  parts  of  the 
town  and  in  the  public  squares.  As  soon  as 
groups  are  formed,  every  one  kneels  down  and 
they   begin   slowly   and    in    undertones    to    chant 


BUDDHISM  99 

prayers.  The  religious  concerts  produced  by 
these  numerous  assemblages  create  throughout 
the  town  a  solemn  harmony,  which  operates 
forcibly  on  the  soul.  The  first  time  we  witnessed 
this  spectacle,  we  could  not  help  drawing  a  ^Dain- 
ful  comparison  between  this  pagan  town,  where 
all  prayed  together,  and  the  cities  of  Europe, 
where  people  would  blush  to  make  the  sign  of  the 
cross  in  public."  (Monier  Williams,  "Bud- 
dhism," p.  386.) 

Passing  north  from  Tibet  into  China  and  The  Two 
Japan,  we  see  that  Buddhism  has  undergone  even  Vehicles, 
greater  changes.  In  India  and  Si  am  and  Burma 
Buddhism  has  remained  the  Buddhism  of  the 
Hinayana  system,  that  is,  the  '^ Little  Vehicle,"  a 
name  referring  to  the  way  in  which  the  faith 
offered  to  convey  the  believer  across  the  seas  of 
sorrow  into  the  haven  of  Nirvana.  It  is  the 
small  conveyance,  the  little  vehicle,  because  the 
forms  of  doctrine  and  worship  were  plain  and 
few,  but  exacting,  compared  with  the  elaborate 
schemes  and  ampler  views  of  the  Mahayana  sys- 
tem, or  the  School  of  the  Great  Vehicle.  The 
Hinayana  was  the  small  road  to  salvation.  It 
opened  the  door  to  the  few  who  could  meet  the 
narrow  requirements.  The  Mahayana  was  the 
broad  road,  open  to  all,  aiming  to  uplift  the  whole 
of  mankind  to  the  Buddhist  salvation  and  to 
increase  to  the  highest  possible  degree  the  num- 
ber of  ways  or  means  for  the  obtaining  of  blessed- 
ness.     (De  Groot,  '^The  Religion  of  the  Chinese, 


100       THE  LIGHT  OF   THE    WORLD 

p.  166.)  Some  trace  the  two  schools  back  to 
Buddha's  own  teaching,  which  contained  the 
dual  doctrine  of  a  hard  and  an  easy  salvation, 
lessons  for  beginners  and  lessons  for  the  more 
advanced.  (Lloyd,  '^Transactions  of  The  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan,"  Vol.  XII,  Part  III,  p.  343). 
It  is  clear  that  the  more  advanced  and  expanded 
doctrines  of  the  Mahayana  open  the  wider  and 
more  varied  methods  of  salvation.  These  devel- 
opments of  Buddhism  have  carried  it  forward  into 
many  forms  entirely  inconsistent  with  Gautama's 
original  doctrine,  into  polytheism  and  idolatry, 
into  the  deification  of  Buddha  himself,  into  the 
wildest  superstition  and  into  theistic  forms  which 
are  a  good  preparation  for  Christianity.  We 
have  theistic,  polytheistic,  mystical,  hierarchical, 
ceremonial  and  ritualistic  Buddhism, — systems 
and  ideas  so  contradictory  that  a  hopeful  student 
of  Chinese  Buddhism,  contrasting  with  the  old 
Buddhism  of  Gautama  the  Buddhism  of  Ashva- 
gosha's  * 'Awakening  of  Faith,"  declares  that 

1.  The  Old  Buddhism  was  atheistic;  the  New  is 
theistic. 

2.  The  Old  Buddhism  trusted  in  salvation  by  one's 
own  efforts  (Karma);  the  New  trusted  in  the  help  of 
God  as  well. 

3.  The  Old  Buddhism  believed  in  retirement  from 
the  evil  world  ;  the  New  believed  in  living  in  the  world 
and  in  saving  others  as  the  highest  virtue. 

4.  The  Old  Buddhism  believed  in  countless  transmi- 
grations before  the  many  could  be  delivered;  the  New 
believed  in  passing  into  Paradise  at  once  without  any 
rounds  of  transmigration. 


BUDDHISM  101 

(Richard's  translation  of  Ashvagosha's  ''The 
Awakening  of  Faith,"  p.  12  f.)  Yet  all  these 
contradictories  pass  under  the  name  of  Buddhism! 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  new  Bud- 
dhism which  Dr.  Richard  finds  in  ''The  Awaken- 
ing of  Faith,"  though  the  book  was  translated 
into  Chinese  in  the  sixth  century,  has  not  been 
the  form  of  Buddhism  prevalent  in  China.  Jap- 
anese Buddhism  has  come  much  nearer  to  it. 
*'Of  the  26,000  Buddhist  monks  and  nuns  in 
Japan,"  says  Dr.  Richard,  "no  less  than  17,000 
belong  to  the  Pure  Land  School  and  the  True 
School,  which  regard  this  book  as  their  fountain 
and  origin."  ("The  Awakening  of  Faith,"  p. 
5.) 

As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  third  century  B.  Buddkism  in 
C.  Buddhist  missionaries  visited  China,  and  at  China, 
once  arrayed  themselves  on  the  side  of  the  popu- 
lar animistic  superstition  and  of  Taoism,  in 
opposition  to  Confucianism.  For  three  centuries 
the  Buddhist  propaganda  met  with  no  success, 
until,  in  consequence  of  a  dream  of  the  Emperor 
Ming  Li  in  the  year  61  A.  D.,  an  embassy  was 
dispatched  to  Cashmere  and*  India  to  bring  the 
religion  officially  to  China,  and  in  consequence 
Buddhism  became  the  imperial  faith.  It  has 
never  found  favor,  however,  in  the  eyes  of  Con- 
fucianism, which  despises  it  as  superstition,  and 
has  again  and  again,  in  the  history  of  China, 
made  war  upon  it.  (De  Groot,  "The  Religion  of 
the  Chinese,"  Ch.  VII.)      But  it  conciliated  Con- 


102      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

fucianism  by  its  contribution  to  the  ceremonial 
adornment  of  ancestor  worship,  and  it  combined 
with  Taoism  to  minister  to  those  religious  neces- 
sities which  Confucianism  ignored  but  could  not 
annul.  In  consequence,  while  almost  all  Chinese 
are  Confucianists  in  theory,  and  most  of  them 
will  declare  Buddhism  to  be  heresy,  in  practice 
they  combine  Buddhist  rites  with  the  ceremony 
of  ancestor  worship,  and  at  weddings  and  funerals, 
in  times  of  sickness  and  emergency,  they  resort  to 
the  Buddhist  priests  or  temples.  How  far  Chi- 
nese Buddhism  has  departed  from  the  Middle 
Way  of  Gautama,  which  rejected  on  the  one  hand 
the  pleasures  of  sense  and  on  the  other  all  trust 
in  ritual  and  ceremony,  and  walked  between 
world! iness  and  superstition,  is  evidenced  by 
almost  every  feature  of  the  Chinese  religious 
life, — its  ceaseless  worldly  concern,  its  grotesque 
idolatry,  and  the  lurid  symbolism  of  its  hells, 
whose  terrors  inspire  men  to  righteousness. 
Confucianism  and  the  Chinese  character  are 
responsible  for  the  worldly  concern,  but  the 
superstition,  the  sense  of  abject  dependence  upon 
unseen  powers,  the  puerile  worship  and  the 
nobler  conception  of  deities  like  Kwan  Yin,  the 
goddess  of  mercy,  are  the  reaction  of  men's 
hearts,  naturally  religious,  against  the  teaching  of 
Gautama  that  left  men  without  any  divine  fellow- 
ship or  help,  in  the  midst  of  forces  whose  mystery 
the  Buddhist  metaphysics  could  not  dispel.  Yet 
though  the  type  of  Buddhism  developed  in  China 


BUDDHISM  103 

influences  the  mass  of  the  people,  nevertheless,  as 
a  whole,  they  have  little  respect  for  the  Buddhist 
Church  and  habitually  sneer  at  the  Buddhist 
priests.  The  Tai-ping  rebels  wiped  out  the  sys- 
tem wherever  they  went;  and  the  present  educa- 
tional reformation  in  China  does  not  scruple  to 
appropriate  the  temples  and  their  revenues  for 
the  purposes  of  the  new  schools.  Beal  sums  up 
the  moral  and  social  effect  of  Buddhism  upon  the 
Chinese  people  by  saying,  ''Whilst  it  has  not 
answered  any  great  end  in  raising  the  religious 
tone  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  it  has  certainly 
tended  to  promote  a  love  of  morality,  and  a 
healthy  state  of  society,  by  guarding  it  against 
vice  or  profligacy;  and  it  has  helped  to  raise  the 
mind  to  a  love  of  the  beautiful  in  nature,  and 
assisted  in  the  advancement  of  art  and  litera- 
ture. ...  It  did  nothing,  however,  to  promote 
the  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  nor  has  it  sup- 
plied any  substitute  for  the  worship  of  Shang-ti, 
the  lord  and  maker  of  the  world ;  and  what  it  has 
given  in  lieu  of  this,  viz.,  a  somewhat  meaning- 
less spiritualism,  will  hardly  compensate  for  the 
loss  of  the  great  thought  of  a  'supreme,  personal 
Ruler'  directing  and  governing  the  world.'* 
(Beal,  "Buddhism  in  China,"  pp.  259,  254. 
Nevius,  "China  and  the  Chinese,"  Ch.  VII, 
VIII.) 

Buddhism     has     reached     somewhat     worthier  In  Japan, 
developments  in  Japan.      It  came  thither  by  way 
of  Korea  in  the  sixth  century.      "Introduced  at  an 


104      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

opportune  moment,"  says  Professor  Takakusu  in 
the  chapter  on  Buddhism  in  Count  Okuma's 
"Fiftv  Years  of  New  Japan,"  "Buddhism  was 
welcomed  by  all  classes,  and  the  majority  of  the 
people  soon  became  its  adherents.  It  is  needless 
to  say  how  powerful  was  its  influence  over  the 
formation  of  beliefs  and  moral  principles;  and 
this  influence  extended  to  politics,  education, 
literature,  industry,  and  art;  in  fact,  there  was 
nothing  that  was  not  impregnated  with  Buddhism, 
or  influenced  by  its  priests.  In  other  words,  the 
ancient  civilization  of  Japan  owed  its  rise  to 
Buddhism.  There  is  one  strange  fact  connected 
with  the  introduction  of  the  religion  into  Japan 
which  is  worthy  of  notice;  namely,  that,  whilst 
on  the  Continent  the  original  spirit  of  Buddhism 
was  forgotten,  and  its  adherents  clung  to  a  cor- 
rupt form,  as  soon  as  it  was  brought  into  Japan 
it  underwent  a  refining  process.  The  corrupt 
forms  were  rejected,  and  only  that  which  seemed 
to  the  Japanese  pure  and  good  was  retained,  to  be 
remodeled,  as  it  were,  and  formed  into  the  Bud- 
dhism of  Japan.  It  was  not,  therefore,  a  mere 
transplanting  of  the  Buddhism  of  India,  China, 
Annam,  or  of  Korea,  but  a  new  and  distinct  form 
of  religion.  It  was  through  this  that  Japan 
happily  escaped  from  being  poisoned  by  the 
unhealthy  forms  prevalent  on  the  Continent." 
(''Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan,"  Vol.  IT,  p.  65  f.) 
Buddhism  had  to  gain  its  place,  however,  in 
conflict  with  Shintoism,  the  indigenous  cult,  akin 


BUDDHISM  105 

to  the  ancestral  worship  of  China.  The  word 
Shinto  means  the  Divine  Way,  the  Way  of  the 
Gods.  Although  based  on  ancestor  worship,  it 
is  not  an  idolatry, — no  images  appear  in  its 
temples.  It  cultivates  the  idea  of  purity,  or 
rather  cleanliness.  It  practices  prayer  and,  in  a 
sense,  sacrifice.  It  is,  above  all,  the  religion  of 
loyalty. 

The  central  conception  of  Shinto  is  expressed  by  the 
word  kami,  which  is  a  comprehensive  term  applicable 
to  anything  which  is  high,  or  above  oneself,  whether 
deity  or  emperor  or  feudal  chief.  It  can  even  denote 
elevation  in  space,  as  a  mountain  top  or  the  hair  on  the 
head. 

In  practice,  Shinto  is  the  organized  expression  of 
Japanese  patriotism.  The  emperor  is  the  kami.  Japan 
is  the  Holy  Land.  "The  Kami's  will  is  the  Emperor's 
will,"  is  a  maxim  dear  to  the  heart  of  the  Japanese. 
The  effect  is  that  the  government  of  Japan  is  regarded 
as  a  theocracy,  and  reverence  is  inculcated  as  the  proper 
attitude  of  the  mind  of  the  individual  in  relation  to  the 
State. 

This  reverence  extends  to  the  family.  Indeed  it  may 
be  said  to  extend  from  the  family  to  the  State.  In 
social  life  the  individual  is  nothing,  the  family  is  every- 
thing; and  the  State  is  the  national,  all-inclusive 
family,  with  the  emperor  at  its  head.  Thus  the  prin- 
ciple which  teaches  reverence  to  parents  and  ancestors, 
exalts  the  emperor  above  all. 

As  a  cult,  Shinto  takes  shape  in  ceremonial  and  in 
poetical  liturgies  which  are  chanted  by  the  priests.  It 
is  indeed  a  system  of  national  ceremonial,  and  is  so 
regarded  by  the  Japanese.  It  does  not  now  claim  to  be 
a  religion  in  the  sense  in  which  Buddhism  is  a  religion^ 
and    it   offers    no    direct    opposition    to   other  religions. 


106      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Shinto  has  no  moral  code.  The  one  principle  of  this 
kind  which  it  emphasizes  is  that  of  Makoto  (Truth). 
Out  of  this  principle  developed  the  system  of  knightly 
honor  called  Bushido. 

''Shinto/'  writes  Baron  Keiroku  Tsuzuki,  "is  a 
crystallized  system  of  rites  for  the  veneration  of  the 
personalities  closely  connected  with  our  existence  and 
our  national  history ;  in  other  words,  a  systematized  and 
complicated  form  of  taking  off  our  hats  before  the 
emblems  of  our  ancestors  and  national  heroes."  (Re- 
port of  Commission  IV,  World  Missionary  Conference, 
Edinburgh,  Ch.  IV.) 

Shintoism  has  in  recent  years  disavowed  any 
religious  character;  yet  there  is  an  esoteric 
Shintoism  which  is  a  practical  mysticism,  even  a 
god-possession.  (''Transactions  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  of  Japan, ' '  Vol.  XXI.  Papers  by  Percival 
Lowell,  ''Esoteric  Shinto,"  pp.  106-135,  152- 
197,  241-270. )  And  there  is  a  religious  eclecticism 
in  Japan  to-day  which  finds  a  quasi-religious 
place  for  Shinto.  "In  what  religion,  then,  do  I 
believe  }  I  cannot  answer  that  question  directly, ' ' 
says  Professor  Kume.  "I  turn  to  the  Shinto 
priest  in  case  of  public  festivals,  while  the 
Buddhist  priest  is  my  ministrant  for  funeral 
services.  I  regulate  my  conduct  according  to 
Confucian  maxims  and  Christian  morals.  I  care 
little  for  external  forms,  and  doubt  whether  there 
are  any  essential  differences,  in  the  kami's  eyes, 
between  any  of  the  religions  of  the  civilized 
world."  (Okuma,  "Fifty  Years  of  New  Japan, " 
Vol.   II,  p.  41.)     Shinto  was   no   satisfaction   of 


BUDDHISM  107 

the  religious  needs  of  Japan  in  the  sixth  century, 
and  Buddhism  found  its  way  to  the  nation's 
heart. 

In  Japan  the  religion  underwent  a  varied  devel- 
opment. On  the  one  hand  its  usages  were 
adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  the  multitude  in 
symbols  and  parables  and  allegories.  Falsehood 
and  superstition  and  charms  and  debasing  rites 
came  into  the  religion.  But  on  the  other  hand 
earnest  men  who  saw  the  impossibility  of  salva- 
tion through  philosophy  and  asceticism  and  med- 
itation found  a  means  of  salvation  by  faith. 
(Knox,  "The  Development  of  Religion  in 
Japan,"  p.  192  f.  For  illustration,  see  "The 
Monist,  "  January,  1894.  Article  by  Z.  Ashitsu, 
"The  Fundamental  Teachings  of  Buddhism.") 
Between  these  extremes  twelve  sects  of  Buddhism 
arose,  and  so  wide  was  the  variance  of  most  of 
these  from  Buddha's  doctrine,  as  was  the  case  in 
China  as  well,  that  judged  by  their  teachings, 
Buddha  himself  was  not  a  Buddhist.  Here 
again,  however,  we  must  beware  of  judging  too 
harshly.  Have  there  not  been  developments  of 
Christianity  in  which  Jesus  would  not  recognize 
His  religion? 

Japan,  impelled  by  its  racial   appetite   for  im-   Japan  Dissat- 
provement,    has    never    been    satisfied    with    any   isfied  with 
form   of    Buddhism.      The    old    systems    have    a   Buddhism, 
powerful    hold   upon   the    nation   that   is   not  yet 
relaxed,  but  they   are   undergoing  to-day  a  deep 
transformation,  and   a   new   Buddhism   is   taking 


108       THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

form  which  is  ethical  and  eclectic  (see  ''The 
New  Buddhism,"  "The  Japan  Daily  Mail," 
March  31,  1892),  while  increasing  numbers  of 
the  educated  men  are  turning  away  from  the 
ancient  religions  altogether.  The  religious 
appeal  of  Japan  may  be  set  forth  in  four  random 
but  typical  quotations: — 

1.  Editorial  in  "The  Japan  Times,"  Septem- 
ber 3,  1910:  "Whatever  pretension  Buddhism 
may  set  forth  in  other  directions,  it  certainly  and 
absolutely  has  no  claim  to  make  in  this  particular 
respect;  that  is,  in  the  work  of  the  moral,  intel- 
lectual and  social  elevation  of  new  Japan." 

2.  Editorial  in  "The  Seoul  Press,"  August 
17,  1910:  "We  believe  few  will  contradict  us 
when  we  say  that  Buddhism  is  on  the  wane,  and 
provided  that  everything  goes  on  as  it  is  going 
now,  is  doomed  to  perish,  sooner  or  later,  in  the 
Island  Empire.  ...  In  fact  the  nation  as  a 
whole  regards  Buddhism  with  cold  indiffer- 
ence. .  .  .  To  cut  it  short,  Buddhism  is  dying 
in  Japan,  and  scarcely  holds  its  place  as  a  reli- 
gion in  the  minds  of  the  Japanese  younger  men. 
It  is  not  a  power  having  great  influence  in  the 
shaping  of  their  moral  character." 

3.  Kanzo  Uchimura's  "An  Anglo-Japanese 
Conversation  on  Japanese  Men  and  Things": 
"They  say  Buddhism  is  the  most  philosophical 
religion  in  the  world;  do  you  think  so  too?" 

"Yes,  if  by  'philosophical'  you  mean  'meta- 
physical.'    No  religion  has  so  many  loopholes  in 


BUDDHISM  109 

its  philosophical  system  as  Buddhism.  Indeed, 
it  seems  to  be  the  sum  total  of  all  religions. 
The  fact  that  there  is  everything  in  it  may  prove 
that  there  is  nothing  in  it." 

"But  you  cannot  deny  the  great  good  it  has 
done  to  our  country." 

"Yes,  it  has  done  much  good,  and  it  has  done 
much  evil  also.  It  has  taught  us  mercy  to  the 
poor  and  worms,  but  on  the  great  questions  of 
Liberty  and  Equality,  it  has  been  entirely  silent. 
Buddhism  makes  a  recluse,  but  not  a  hero  and 
patriot."      (P.  91  f.) 

4.  Count  Okuma  at  the  Jubilee  of  Protestant 
Missions  in  Japan,  October,  1909:  "To  be  sure, 
Japan  had  her  religions,  and  Buddhism  prospered 
greatly;  but  this  prosperity  was  largely  through 
political  means.  Now  this  creed  has  been  prac- 
tically rejected  by  the  better  classes,  who,  being 
spiritually  thirsty,  have  nothing  to  drink." 
("The  Japan  Daily  Mail,"  October  9,  1909.) 

There  is  a  Living  Water  which  can  quench 
this  thirst,  but  it  is  not  in  Buddhism. 

We  come,  then,  at  the  close  to  ask  what  are  the 
contrasts  and  the  points  of  contact  between  Chris- 
tianity and  Buddhism. 

The  Contrasts.  Gautama's  doctrine  and  the  Contraats 
doctrine  of  philosophical  Buddhism  denies  God.  Between  ^ 
There  is  accordingly  no  sin  in  the  Christian  con-        !*"  **° 

^  ^  and 

ception  of  the  word.      It   also  denies  the   human   Buddtfam. 
soul.     Without  sin  to  be  saved  from,  or  God  to 
be  saved  by  and  to,  or  a  soul   to  be  saved  at  all, 


110       THE   LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

there  is,  in  the  Christian  sense,  no  salvation. 
The  Buddhist  Catechism  summarizes  the  differ- 
ence between  the  two  religions: — 

What  is  the  principal  difference  between  Buddhism 
and  other  religions? 

Buddhism  teaches  perfect  goodness  and  wisdom  with- 
out a  personal  god;  the  highest  knowledge  without  a 
revelation;  amoral  world  order  and  just  retribution, 
carried  out  with  necessity  by  reason  of  the  laws  of 
nature  and  of  our  own  being;  continued  existence  with- 
out an  immortal  soul ;  eternal  bliss  without  a  local 
heaven  ;  the  possibility  of  redemption  without  a  vicarious 
redeemer;  a  salvation  at  which  every  one  is  his  own 
saviour,  and  which  can  be  attained  in  this  life  and  on 
this  earth  by  the  exercise  of  one's  own  faculties  without 
prayers,  sacrifices,  penances,  and  ceremonies,  without 
ordained  priests,  without  the  mediation  of  saints,  and 
without  divine  grace. 

But  there  are  more  differences  than  these.  Sir 
Monier  Williams  draws  out  the  list  in  his  last 
lecture  on  Buddhism: — 

According  to  Christianity :  Fight  and  overcome  the 
world. 

According  to  Buddhism  :  Shun  the  world,  and  with- 
draw from  it. 

According  to  Christianity :  Expect  a  new  earth  when 
the  present  earth  is  destroyed ;  a  world  renewed  and 
perfected  ;  a  purified  world  in  which  righteousness  is  to 
dwell  forever. 

According  to  Buddhism  :  Expect  a  never-ending  suc- 
cession of  evil  worlds  forever  coming  into  existence, 
developing,  decaying,  perishing,  and  reviving,  and  all 
equally  full  of  everlasting  misery,  disappointment,  illu- 
sion, change  and  transmutation. 


BUDDHISM  111 

According  to  Christianity,  bodily  existence  is  subject 
to  only  one  transformation. 

According  to  Buddhism,  bodily  existence  is  contin- 
ued in  six  conditions,  through  countless  bodies  of  men, 
animals,  demons,  ghosts,  and  dwellers  in  various  hells 
and  heavens ;  and  that,  too,  w^ithout  any  progressive 
development,  but  in  a  constant  jumble  of  metamor- 
phoses and  transmutations. 

Christianity  teaches  that  a  life  in  heaven  can  never 
be  followed  by  a  fall  to  a  lower  state. 

Buddhism  teaches  that  a  life  in  a  higher  heaven  may 
be  succeeded  by  a  life  in  a  lower  heaven,  or  even  by  a 
life  on  earth  or  in  one  of  the  hells. 

According  to  Christianity,  the  body  of  man  may  be 
the  abode  of  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God. 

According  to  Buddhism,  the  body,  whether  of  men  or 
of  higher  beings,  can  never  be  the  abode  of  anything  but 
evil. 

According  to  Christianity :  Present  your  bodies  as 
living  sacrifices,  holy,  acceptable  to  God,  and  expect  a 
change  to  glorified  bodies  hereafter. 

According  to  Buddhism:  Look  to  final  deliverance 
from  all  bodily  life,  present  and  to  come,  as  the  greatest 
of  all  blessings,  highest  of  all  boons,  and  loftiest  of  all 
aims. 

According  to  Christianity,  a  man's  body  can  never  be 
changed  into  the  body  of  a  beast,  or  bird,  or  insect,  or 
loathsome  vermin. 

According  to  Buddhism,  a  man,  and  even  a  god,  may 
become  an  animal  of  any  kind,  and  even  the  most 
loathsome  vermin  may  again  become  a  man  or  a  god. 

According  to  Christianity :  Stray  not  from  God's 
ways;  offend  not  against  his  holy  laws. 

According  to  Buddhism :  Stray  not  from  the  eight- 
fold path  of  the  perfect  man,  and  offend  not  against 
yourself  and  the  law  of  the  perfect  man. 

According  to  Christianity :  Work  the  works  of  God 
while  it  is  day. 


112       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

According  to  Buddhism  :  Beware  of  action,  as  caus- 
ing rebirth,  and  aim  at  inaction,  indifference,  and 
apatlij,  as  the  highest  of  all  states.  (''Buddhism,"  p. 
559  f . ) 

Buddha  offered  men  no  help.  Each  man  must 
do  everything  for  himself,  working  out  his  own 
salvation  in  fear  and  trembling  or  in  joy  and  con- 
fidence, but  preferably  with  no  feelings  whatever, 
knowing  that  God  was  not  working  in  him  or  for 
him,  and  that  there  was  indeed  no  God  at  all. 
Buddhism  is  a  religion  of  unselfishness,  but  it  is 
not  a  religion  of  service.  It  lacks  the  idea  of 
duty  either  to  God  or  to  men.  ''From  first  to 
last  the  sacred  books  are  terribly  consistent  in 
failing  to  recognize  any  sort  of 'obligation. '  .  .  . 
(The  Buddhist)  has  no  aim  in  life  except  to 
escape  from  it."  (Copleston,  "Buddhism, "  p. 
150  f. )  This  is  the  radical  defect  of  Buddhism. 
Its  idea  of  self-abnegation  sprang  not  "from  a 
lively  conviction  of  the  impermanency  and 
unreality  of  the  world  of  sense,  not  from  that 
aspiration  after  communing  with  a  being  of  per- 
fectly unselfish  goodness,  w^hich  kindled  the 
genius  of  Plato  and  forms  the  deep  root  of  Chris- 
tian morality.  Unconsciously  impressed  by  the 
grandeur  of  the  life  of  the  universe  as  something 
boundless,  permanent  and  absolute,  the  founder 
of  Buddhism  had  nothing  but  contempt  for  the 
individual  personal  life  as  something  narrow, 
transitory  and  finite.  He  enjoined  absolute  un- 
selfishness,   not    because    selfishness   appeared  to 


BUDDHISM  113 

him  mean  and  demeaning  in  itself,  not  because 
he  recognized  unselfishness  as  something  noble 
and  ennobling  in  itself,  but  because  all  individu- 
ality, all  personal  life,  was  utterly  worthless  to  his 
mind.  He  wished  men  to  sink  in  themselves, 
not  that  they  might  thereby  rise  in  God,  but 
simply  because  he  conceived  existence  to  be  in 
itself  an  absolute  evil  and  the  source  of  all 
misery."  (Eitel,  '^ Three  Lectures  on  Bud- 
dhism," p.  79.) 

Cut  off  then  from  the  true  joy  of  life's  struggle 
for  character  as  an  agency  for  work,  and  from  the 
active  help  of  a  living  and  loving  God,  Bud- 
dhism lacks  the  power  which  Christianity  pos- 
sesses. Mr.  Iwahashi  is  a  Christian  evangelist 
at  Gobo,  Japan.  In  1907  the  devout  Buddhists 
of  Gobo,  desiring  to  check  the  spread  of  Chris- 
tianity, sent  for  the  famous  priest  Shaku  Soyen, 
who  was  one  of  the  representatives  of  the  Japan- 
ese Buddhists  at  the  World's  Parliament  of  Reli- 
gions, at  Chicago,  in  1893.  Mr.  Iwahashi  was 
at  one  time  a  student  under  him.  When  he  came 
to  Gobo,  where  Mr.  Iwahashi  is  at  w^ork,  Mr. 
Iwahashi  called  to  pay  his  respects.  Shaku 
asked  Mr.  Iwahashi  what  he  was  doing.  He 
said,  ''I  have  now  become  a  Christian  and  am 
preaching  Jesus."  Shaku  replied,  "The  Chris- 
tian religion  is  a  religion  that  has  a  power  over 
the  lives  of  men  that  I  long  to  see  in  our  Bud- 
dhism." 

The  Points  of  Contact.     First  of  all,  Buddhism 


114      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 


rested  on  the  foundation  of  some  great  truths 
which  we  joyfully  recognize  as  Christian,  which, 
however  confused  in  later  developments,  have 
never  been  lost,  and  which  in  some  of  the  modi- 
fications which  the  religion  has  undergone  have 
been  enriched  and  drawn  nearer  still  to  the  truths 
of  Christianity.  It  began  with  the  recognition 
of  the  evil  and  limitation  of  life  as  our  mortal 
inheritance,  and  the  assertion  of  a  nobler  and 
freer  destiny  for  inan.  It  insisted  on  the  vital 
relation  of  conduct  to  character  and  of  character 
to  man's  destiny.  ''It  pointed  out  in  the  strong- 
est terms  the  impermanency  and  hollowness  of 
everything  earthly.  It  exhorted  its  devotees  to 
extend  love  and  charity  to  man  and  beast.  It 
marked  selfishness,  lust  and  passion  as  the  chief 
enemies  of  human  happiness.  It  pointed  out  the 
superiority  of  the  inward  life  over  outward  exist- 
ence. It  taught  its  adherents  to  look  away  from 
earthly  sensual  objects  to  regions  invisible,  and 
inspired  them — at  least  to  a  certain  extent — with 
hopes  of  immortality."  (Eitel,  ''Three  Lectures 
on  Buddhism,"  p.  94  f. )  All  this  was  in  the 
Buddhism  of  Gautama.  Latent  there,  also,  lay 
that  discovery  of  man's  impotence  to  achieve 
alone  his  own  character  and  destiny  to  which 
Buddhism  later  came.  Gautama  claimed  that  he 
himself  had  attained,  but  the  whole  subsequent 
history  of  Buddhism  has  been  a  search  for  supple- 
ments, such  supjDlements  as  are  found  in  their 
adequacy  only  in  Christianity. 


BUDDHISM  115 

And  it  is  in  the  later  developments  that  the 
chief  points  of  contact  with  Christianity  are 
found.  Buddhism,  in  these  developments, 
abandoned  its  atheism  and,  ''most  vs^onderful  of 
all,  raised  the  denier  of  God's  existence  to  the 
throne  of  the  Supreme."  (''The  Chinese  Re- 
corder, ' '  May,  1889.  Article  by  W.  A.  P.  Martin, 
"Is  Buddhism  a  Preparation  for  Christianity?" 
p.  196.)  In  the  Saddharma  Pundarika,  Sakya- 
muni  is  the  fullness  of  God.  "He,  begotten 
before  all  worlds,  is  the  sum  total  of  all  that  is 
divine  or  that  is  worshiped  in  the  whole  uni- 
verse. He  is  the  sole  Lord  that  claims  allegiance ; 
the  other  Buddhas,  the  Gods,  and  the  Saints,  are 
but  partial  emanations  of  the  One  Divine  Essence 
which  has  become  Human  in  Sakyamuni." 
(Lloyd,  "Wheat  Among  the  Tares,"  p.  91:.)  In 
the  Shin  Shu  sect  of  Japanese  Buddhism,  the 
transformed  faith  of  Gautama  either  is  or  is  like 
a  new  Asiatic  version  of  central  Christian  truth. 
The  essence  of  this  teaching  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
Saving  Vow  of  Amida,  which  forms  the  faith  of 
the  most  religious  portion  of  the  Japanese  nation. 

Amida  is  the  One  Buddha,  a  Being  of  infinite  life 
and  light,  without  beginning  of  life  or  end  of  days. 
Countless  ages  ago  he,  out  of  his  mercy,  became  man, — 
his  Japanese  name  being  Hozo  Biku, — and  in  his  human 
form  and  for  man  undertook  avisterities  and  penances 
until  he  was  able  as  man  to  return  to  that  glorified  state 
from  which  he  had  descended.  But,  before  returning, 
he  registered  a  vow  not  to  accept  his  glory  until  he  had 
worked  out  a  way  of  salvation  for  mankind — an  easy 
way,    which    should    not    depend    on    man's    individual 


116       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


Paradise,  and  decreed  that  faith  in  his  name  and  vow 
should  suffice  to  enable  the  greatest  sinner  to  enter  and 
be  saved.  .  .  .  Amida  has  a  spiritual  son,  Avalokites- 
vara,  incarnate  again  and  again,  on  errands  of  mercy 
from  his  Father — as  Sakyamuni,  for  instance,  and  again 
as  Christ  (as  many  a  Buddhist  will  acknowledge) — in 
divers  forms  and  persons.  He  has  an  attendant,  Seishi, 
in  whom  resides  his  wisdom,  and  the  three  form  a 
Trinity  whom  the  Amidaist  will  recognize  as  claiming 
his  worship. 

''Be  its  origin  what  it  will,  here  is  a  faith  so 
wonderfully  like  Christianity  that  it  is  difficult  to 
resist  the  inference  that  it  was,  in  the  Divine 
Providence,  intended  as  ^praeparatio  evangelica 
for  the  gospel  in  Japan.  It  is  theological,— it 
recognizes  man  as  a  sinner,  it  preaches  the  gospel 
to  the  poor,  and  it  has  a  salvation  by  Faith  in  a 
Saviour  who  has  done  everything  for  the  soul.'* 
(Report  of  Commission  IV,  World  Missionary 
Conference,  Edinburgh,  Ch.  IV.)  Most  mis- 
sionaries feel  that  these  resemblances  may  be 
pressed  too  far.  Dr.  Imbrie  and  Dr.  Ibuka  sug- 
gest the  warning  that  ''the  gods  of  Buddhism  are 
all  purely  subjective  creations  of  the  mind,  as 
subjective  as  the  angels  of  Gnosticism;  mere  per- 
sonifications or  apotheoses  of  what  is  craved  for 
by  the  heart  of  Buddhism.  In  Christ  God  has 
revealed  Himself  in  history.  Amida  is  only  a 
cry  for  light;  Christ  is  the  light  of  the  w^orld." 
Further,  they  add,  "At  times  in  Buddhism  it 
seems  as  if  pantheism  were  giving  way  to  theism. 
Amida,  Kwannon,  and  many  others  are  conceived 


BUDDHISM  117 

of  as  persons.  But  the  conception  of  supernatural 
beings  called  gods  falls  far  short  of  the  concep- 
tion of  the  infinite,  eternal,  unchangeable  God 
which  is  vital  to  Christianity,  and  without  which 
any  religion  is  anti-Christian.  If  there  are  those 
who  hope  to  discover  in  Shintoism  or  Buddhism 
much  that  is  comparable  with  what  is  found  in 
Judaism  as  points  of  contact  with,  or  preparation 
for,  Christianity,  they  will  be  disappointed;  and  if 
there  are  any  who  think  to  find  in  the  non-Chris- 
tian religions  of  the  world  great  truths  that  will 
complement  Christianity,  they  will  not  find  them 
in  Japan."  (Report  of  Commission  IV,  World 
Missionary  Conference,  Edinburgh,  Ch.  IV.) 

The  great  point  of  contact  with  Buddhism  is 
in  the  human  needs  which  it  discovers  but  cannot 
satisfy.  (1)  Buddhism  tells  men  of  no  god  or  of 
many  gods.  Men  cannot  rest  in  this.  Chris- 
tianity satisfies  them  with  God.  As  one  Japanese 
said,  ^'The  first  thing  that  attracted  me  to  Chris- 
tianity was  the  grandeur  of  the  Christian  concep- 
tion of  God — Infinite,  Eternal,  and  yet  Personal. 
That  led  me  to  think  more  and  more  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  Christ  was  Master  of  my  heart  before 
I  knew  it."  Kanzo  Uchimura,  in  his  ''Diary  of 
a  Japanese  Convert,"  tells  us  how  this  truth 
delivered  him.  ''I  was  taught  that  there  was  but 
One  God  in  the  Universe,  and  not  many — over- 
eight  millions,  as  I  had  formerly  believed.  The 
Christian  monotheism  laid  its  axe  to  the  root  of 
all   my  superstitions.      All  the  vows  I  had  made. 


118    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

and  the  manifold  forms  of  worship  with  which  I 
had  been  attempting  to  appease  my  angry  gods 
could  now  be  dispensed  with  by  owning  this  One 
God;  and  my  reason  and  conscience  responded 
'yea!'  One  God,  and  not  many,  was  indeed  glad 
tidings  to  my  little  soul."  (2)  Buddhism  gives 
men  an  ethical  ideal,  but  it  is  inadequate.  They 
needs  must  recognize  the  higher  when  they  see  it. 
''I  studied  Christianity  for  the  sake  of  finding 
fault  with  it,"  said  a  priest  of  the  Ikko  Shin  sect. 
''After  a  thorough  study  of  Christ,  I  have  not 
been  able  to  find  a  single  fault,  but  Christ  has 
pointed  out  a  thousand  faults  in  me,  and  now  I 
want  to  dedicate  myself  to  Him  for  my  whole 
life."  (3)  Buddha  tells  men  of  life's  weary 
burden  and  offers  them  the  hope  of  death.  But 
the  burden  is  not  lifted,  and  death  is  but  dreary 
cheer.  Christ  speaks  and  His  word  answers 
every  need: — 

Come  unto  me  and  I  will  give  you  rest. 
I  am  come    that  je  may  have    life    and    that   ye    may 
have  it  abundantly. 

If  any  man  thirst,  let  him  come  unto  Me  and  drink. 

BIBLE  READING 

First  cnapter  of  Ephesians. 

QUESTIONS 

What  are  .he  special  reasons  for  Western  interest  in 
Buddhism? 

Is  Buddhism  properly  a  religion?  Can  a  religion 
exist  without  a  belief  in  God? 

How  did  Buddhism  arise? 


BUDDHISM  119 

Who  are  the  Jains? 

Narrate  the  life  of  Gautama. 

Describe  the  missionary  extension  of  Buddhism. 

What  are  the  sacred  books  of  Buddhism? 

What  was  Buddha's  doctrine?  What  were  the  Four 
Noble  Truths?     What  was   the   Noble   Eightfold    Path? 

Was  Buddha  an  atheist  and  a  materialist? 

What  is  Karma?     What  is  Nirvana? 

Describe  the  ethics  of  Buddhism  and  give  its  Ten 
Commandments. 

Describe  the  priesthood. 

What  were  the  great  weaknesses  of  Buddhism? 

Give  some  account  of  the  division  and  development 
of  Buddhism. 

Give  some  account  of  Buddhism  in  China  and  Japan. 

Describe  Shintoism. 

What  are  the  contrasts  between  Buddhism  and  Chris- 
tianity? 

What  the  points  of  contact? 

SELECTED  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Monier  Williams,  "Buddhism  in  its  Connection  with 
Brahmanism  and  Hinduism  and  in  its  Contrast 
with  Christianity,"  Macmillan,  1889. 

Rhys  Davids,  "Buddhism,"  Gorham,  1894. 

Rhys  Davids,  "Hibbert  Lectures,"  Scribner,  1881. 

Kellogg,  "The  Light  of  Asia  and  the  Light  of  the 
World,"  Macmillan,  1885. 

Eitel,  "Three  Lectures  on  Buddhism,"  Lane,  Crawford 
&  Co.,  1884. 

Dods,  "Mohammed,  Buddha  and  Christ,"  Hodder  & 
Stoughton,  1893. 

Hardy,  "Manual  of  Buddhism,"  Williams  &  Norgate, 
1880. 

Beal,  "Buddhism  in  China,"  Gorham,  1884. 

Griffis,  "The  Religions  of  Japan,"  Scribner,  1895. 

Lloyd,  "Wheat  Among  the  Tares,"  Macmillan,  1908. 

Aston,  "The  Way  of  the  Gods." 


CHAPTER  III. 
ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM  AND  TAOISM 


CHAPTER  III 

ANIMISM,    CONFUCIANISM   AND   TAOISM 

It  may  seem  incongruous,  at  first  thought,  to 
group  together  the  religion  of  the  primitive 
mind,  of  the  lowest  races,  which  we  call  animism, 
and  the  sober  political  philosophy  of  the  Chinese. 
In  the  case  of  the  animist,  or  spirit  worshiper,  all 
life  is  peopled  with  unseen,  supernatural  forms 
which  must  be  dealt  with.  In  the  case  of  the 
Chinese,  it  has  been  often  supposed,  the  unseen 
world  is  of  small  interest.  The  attitude  of  Con- 
fucius is  assumed  to  represent  the  Chinese  mind 
of  all  the  centuries,  and  especially  its  materialistic 
cast  to-day.  "Extraordinary  things,"  we  are 
told  of  Confucius  in  the  Analects,  ''feats  of 
strength,  states  of  disorder,  and  spiritual  beings 
he  did  not  like  to  talk  about."  The  Analects 
tell  us,  also,  that  ''Ke  Loo  asked  about  serving 
the  spirits  of  the  dead,  and  the  master  said, 
'While  you  are  not  able  to  serve  men,  how  can 
you  serve  spirits?'  The  disciple  added,  'I  ven- 
ture to  ask  about  death, '  and  he  was  answered, 
'While  you  do  not  know  life,  how  can  you  know 
about  death.'  "  (Legge,  "The  Life  and  Teach- 
ings of  Confucius,"  p.  101.)  "To  give  one's 
self  earnestly,"  said  Confucius,  "to  the  duties 
due  to  men,  and,  while  respecting  spiritual 
beings,  to  keep  aloof  from  them,  may  be   called 


124    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

wisdom."  (P.  102.)  In  this  view  of  the 
Chinese  it  has  been  said  that  they  are  a  people 
without  religion.  "This  people,"  said  Dr. 
Fairhairn,  "has  a  so  attenuated  religious  faculty 
or  genius  that  it  can  hardly  be  said  ever  to  have 
known  religion."  ("Studies  in  the  Philosophy 
of  Religion  and  History,"  p.  310.) 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  fairly  argued  that 
the  Chinese  are  and  have  always  been  a  very 
religious  people.  "I,  from  my  observations," 
wrote  Ernst  Faber,  an  old  Rhenish  missionary 
and  one  of  the  ablest  students  of  Chinese  thought, 
*^feel  inclined  to  maintain  that  the  Chinese  be- 
long perhaps  to  the  most  religious  people  (Acts 
xvii,  22,  original)  of  the  world.  Only  we  must 
not  look  for  any  symptoms  of  religion  similar  to 
those  to  which  we  are  accustomed  in  Christian 
lands.  There  are,  however,  comparatively  more 
temples  and  altars,  more  idols  and  more  religious 
practices  in  China  than  in  almost  all  other  coun- 
tries. The  whole  public  and  private  life  is  im- 
pregnated by  religious  observations;  we  see  every 
important  action  of  the  government,  as  well  as 
almost  every  movement  in  private  life,  inaugu- 
rated by  different  religious  rites."  (Faber, 
''Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Chinese  Reli- 
gion," p.  8  f.) 

How  profound  the  religious  spirit  of  the 
Chinese  is,  and  indeed  how  indestructible  is  the 
religious  instinct  in  humanity,  we  may  learn 
from  the  fact  that  Confucianism,  with  its  practi- 


ANIMISM,    CONFUCIANISM     125 

cally  naturalistic  or  agnostic  influence,  has  not 
been  able  to  extirpate  it.  Beneath  and  back  of 
Confucianism  lies  the  deep  and  ancient  religious 
mind  of  China.  As  the  Hon.  Pung  Kvvang  Yu 
said  in  his  paper  on  Confucianism  at  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions: — 

There  are  some  Western  scholars  who  say  that  the 
system  of  doctrines  of  Confucius  cannot  properly  be 
called  a  religion,  and  there  are  others  who  say  that 
China  has  no  religion  of  her  own.  That  the  ethical 
systems  of  Confucius  cannot  be  called  a  religion  may 
be  admitted  without  fear  of  contradiction,  but  that 
China  has  no  religion  of  her  own  must  be  taken  as  not 
well  founded  in  fact.  .  .  .  There  were  priests  in  China 
as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Hwang  Ti.  Among  the  official 
titles  of  ancient  times  were  the  Grand  Dispenser,  the 
Grand  Administrator,  Grand  Historiographer,  the 
Grand  Hierarch,  the  Grand  Scholar,  and  the  Grand 
Diviner.  These  were  the  six  ministers  that  composed 
the  Grand  Council  of  State.  The  Grand  Hierarch  was 
the  head  of  the  priesthood.  ''In  ancient  times,"  say 
the  traditions  of  Tsoh,  "there  were  persons  who  were 
known  by  their  singleness  of  heart ;  who  were  dignified  in 
bearing  and  upright  in  life  ;  whose  understandings  were 
such  as  to  enable  them  to  get  at  the  inner  meaning  of 
things  abov'e  and  things  below;  whose  wisdom  shed 
light  far  and  wide,  whose  sight  was  so  clear  that  things 
appeared  to  them  as  if  illumined  by  a  strong  light;  and 
whose  hearing  was  so  acute  that  they  could  detect  the 
faintest  sound.  Upon  such  the  Divine  Spirit  often 
descended.  ...  A  form  of  religion  was  practiced  in 
China  not  only  long  before  the  appearance  of  the  Con- 
fucian school,  but  also  long  before  the  appearance  of 
any  of  the  great  religious  founders  who  formulated  the 
grand  systems  of  religious  belief.  ("Report  of  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions,"  Vol.  1,  p.  378  f.) 


126    THE  LIGHT  OP  THE  WORLD 

In  this  ancient  religion  of  China  which  pre- 
ceded Confucianism  and  Taoism  and  Buddhism, 
and  which  underlies  them  all  to-day  and  finds 
expression  through  them  in  spite  of  its  logical 
discord  with  the  views  of  Confucius  and  Lao-tsze 
and  Buddha,  there  were  two  elements,  one  an 
elementary  monotheism  and  the  other  a  crude 
animism.  And  it  is  this  primitive  animism  still 
dominating  the  Chinese  mind  which  makes  it 
appropriate  to  group  animism  with  the  religions 
of  China,  and  not  only  appropriate  but  necessary, 
if  we  are  to  understand  the  religious  mind  of 
China.  This  is  the  view  of  the  latest  and  best 
students  of  China's  religions.  As  Professor 
DeGroot  says: — 

The  primeval  form  of  the  religion  of  the  Chinese, 
and  its  very  core  to  this  day,  is  Animism.  It  is  then 
the  same  element  which  is  also  found  to  be  the  root, 
the  central  nerve,  of  many  primeval  religions,  the  same 
even  which  eminent  thinkers  of  our  time,  as  Herbert 
Spencer,  have  put  in  the  foreground  of  their  systems  as 
the  beginning  of  all  human  religion  of  whatever  kind. 

In  China  it  is  based  on  an  implicit  belief  in  the  ani- 
mation of  the  universe,  and  of  every  being  or  thing 
which  exists  in  it.  The  oldest  and  holiest  books  of  the 
empire  teach  that  the  universe  consists  of  two  souls  or 
breaths,  called  Yang  and  Yin,  the  Yang  representing 
light,  warmth,  productivity,  and  life,  also  the  heavens 
from  which  all  these  good  things  emanate;  and  the  Yin 
being  associated  with  darkness,  cold,  death  and  the 
earth.  The  Yang  is  subdivided  into  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  good  souls  or  spirits,  called  shen,  the  Yin  into 
particles  or  evil  spirits,  called  kwei,  specters ;  it  is  these 
shen   and    kwei    which   animate   every  being   and  every 


^H 

k'''^^^liH[^^l^^^^^l 

1^1 

iJ^^^^^SHnHii 

^^^^^^1 

K^^H 

■  Jill  1  ^^B^^^^^HH 

^^^P>»«^  ^'/.^^^^^^^^^^H 

CillXA — OXE    OF    THE    GODS    OF    THE    CHINESE 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM         \Ti 

thing.  It  is  tliey  also  which  constitute  the  soul  of  man. 
His  shen,  also  called  hwun,  immaterial,  ethereal,  like 
heaven  itself  from  which  it  emanates,  constitutes  his 
intellect  and  the  finer  parts  of  his  character,  his  virtues; 
while  his  kwei,  or  poh,  is  thought  to  represent  his  less 
refined  qualities,  his  passions,  vices,  thej  being  bor- 
rowed from  material  earth.  Birth  consists  in  an  infu- 
sion of  these  souls;  death  in  their  departure,  the  shen 
returning  to  the  Vang  or  heaven,  the  kwei  to  the  Yin 
or  earth. 

Thus  man  is  an  intrinsic  part  of  the  universe,  a 
microcosmos,  born  from  the  macrocosmos  spontane- 
ously. But  why  should  man  alone  be  endowed  by  the 
universe  with  a  dual  soul?  Every  animal,  every  plant, 
even  every  object  which  we  are  wont  to  call  a  dead 
object,  has  received  from  the  universe  the  souls  which 
constitute  its  life,  and  which  may  confer  blessing  on 
man  or  may  harm  him.  A  shen  in  fact,  being  a  part 
of  the  Yang  or  the  beatific  half  of  the  universe,  is  gen- 
erally considered  to  be  a  good  spirit  or  god  ;  a  kwei, 
however,  belonging  to  the  Yin  or  other  half,  is,  as  a 
rule,  a  spirit  of  evil,  we  should  say  a  devil,  specter, 
demon.  There  is  no  good  in  nature  but  that  which 
comes  from  the  shen  or  gods  ;  no  evil  but  that  which 
the  kwei  cause  or  inflict. 

With  these  dogmata  before  us,  may  we  not  say  that 
the  main  base  of  the  Chinese  system  of  religion  is  a  Uni- 
versalistic  Animism?  The  universe  being  in  all  its 
parts  crowded  with  shen  and  kwei,  that  system  is,  more- 
over, thoroughly  polytheistic  and  polydemonistic.  The 
gods  are  such  shen  as  animate  heaven,  sun,  moon,  the 
stars,  wind,  rain,  clouds,  thunder,  fire,  the  earth,  seas, 
mountains,  rivers,  rocks,  stones,  animals,  plants,  things 
— in  particular  also  the  souls  of  deceased  men.  And  as 
to  the  demon  world,  nowhere  under  heaven  is  it  so 
populous  as  in  China.  Kwei  swarm  everywhere,  in 
numbei's  inestimable.   .   .   . 


12B      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

The  shen  thus  being  gods  from  whom  good  proceeds, 
and  the  kwei  being  specters  bj  whom  evil  is  wrought, 
the  conclusion  is  that  Chinese  religion  must  be  con- 
ceived as  a  system  aiming  at  the  propitiation  of  the 
aforesaid  gods,  in  order  to  prevail  upon  them  to  prevent 
the  devils  from  doing  harm  to  man.  (DeGroot,  "The 
Religion  of  the  Chinese,"  pp.  3-5,  33.) 

All  this,  as  Professor  DeGroot  points  out,  is 
just  primitive  animism,  the  religion  of  all  the 
primitive  peoples,  the  African  tribes,  the  natives 
of  the  East  Indies,  the  aboriginal  races  of  Bur- 
ma, such  as  the  Karens,  and  of  the  Lao  people; 
and  it  is  the  religion  of  the  Koreans,  on  whom 
Buddhism  laid  but  a  slight  and  temporary  hold, 
and  whose  type  of  national  character  resisted  the 
formalizing  influence  of  Confucianism.  Herr 
Warneck  has  given  a  vivid  and  careful  account  of 
this  phase  of  religion  in  his  account  of  his  ob- 
servations among  the  Battak  people  in  Borneo, 
in  *'The  Living  Christ  and  Dying  Heathenism." 
Dr.  Nassau  has  described  it  out  of  an  even  longer 
experience  among  the  tribes  of  Africa  in  ^'Fetich- 
ism  in  West  Africa."  And  it  has  been  generally 
treated  in  Brinton's  "Religions  of  Primitive 
Peoples"  and  Tylor's  ' 'Primitive  Culture." 
*'The  theory  of  Animism,"  writes  Tylor,  '"di- 
vides into  two  great  dogmas:  first,  concerning 
souls  of  individual  creatures,  capable  of  contin- 
ued existence  after  the  death  or  destruction  of  the 
body;  second,  concerning  other  spirits,  upward 
to  the  rank  of  powerful  deities."  ("Primitive 
Culture,  "  p.  426.)     "Animism, "  says  Herr  War- 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM         129 

neck,  'Ms  a  form  of  paganism  based  on  the  wor- 
ship of  souls.  Men,  animals  and  plants  are  sup- 
posed to  have  souls;  and  their  worship,  as  well 
as  that  of  deceased  spirits,  especially  ancestral 
spirits,  is  the  essence  of  a  religion  which  prob- 
ably is  a  factor  in  all  heathen  religions."  (Re- 
port of  Commission  IV,  World  Missionary 
Conference,  Ch.  II.) 

*'The  belief  in  spiritual  beings,"  says  Dr. 
Nassau,  ''opens  an  immense  vista  of  the  purely 
superstitious  side  of  the  theology  of  Bantu  Afri- 
can religion.  All  the  air  and  the  future  is 
peopled  with  a  large  and  indefinite  company  of 
these  beings.  The  attitude  of  the  Creator  (An- 
yambe)  toward  the  human  race  and  the  lower 
animals  being  that  of  indifference  or  of  positive 
severity  in  having  allowed  evils  to  exist,  and  His 
indifference  making  Him  almost  inexorable,  cause 
effort  in  the  line  of  worship  to  be  therefore 
directed  only  to  those  spirits  who,  though  they 
are  all  probably  malevolent,  may  be  influenced 
and  made  benevolent. "  (Nassau,  "Fetichismin 
West  Africa,"  p.  50.) 

This    is   the    central   element   in   all    animistic   Animism  a 
religion.      Men   are   afraid.      Their  great  aim   is   Religion  of 
to  placate  the  evil  spirits.      All   life    is  shadowed   ^^**"' 
by  this  dread.      Bishop  Cameron  of  Cape   Town 
says,    "The  religion   of  the    heathen    Kaffirs    is 
entirely  traditional   and  based   on   fear."      "The 
Zulu,"  says  Archdeacon  Johnson,  "has  probably 
no     conception     of     spiritual     consolation.      His 


130       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

actions  are  dictated  by  the  desire  to  escaj^e  any- 
thing more  unpleasant  than  that  which  has 
already  befallen  him. ' '  And  Hcrr  Warneck  says, 
''Fear  is  characteristic  of  this  religion.  But  this 
fear  is  real,  and  so  are  the  efforts  of  the  heathen 
to  banish  the  spirits  or  to  appease  them  by  sacri- 
fices, even  to  deceive  them  if  possible.  About 
all  this  they  are  pathetically  in  earnest,  for  fear 
of  unknown  powers  is  the  greatest  reality,  the 
leading  motive  of  the  heathen's  religious  life." 

"The  animistic  heathen,"  the  same  writer  says 
in  ''The  Living  Christ  and  Dying  Heathenism,"' 
"are  not  only  in  error;  they  are  slaves.  Fear 
in  various  forms  tyrannizes  over  the  animist  in 
every  situation  of  life.  The  vision  of  the  world 
in  which  his  religiousness  is  rooted  is  extremely 
dark.  Even  his  own  soul  is  a  hostile  power 
against  which  he  must  be  ever  on  his  guard.  It 
is  fond  of  leaving  him;  it  allows  itself  to  be 
enticed  away  from  him.  .  .  .  The  souls  of 
relatives  are  easily  wounded;  and  woe  to  him 
who  even  unintentionally  offends  them.  Prim- 
itive man  has  to  wind  his  way  amid  the  throng  of 
the  souls  of  the  people  around  him,  and  must 
continually  bargain  or  fight  with  invisible  and 
sinister  powers.  To  that  must  be  added  fear  of 
the  dead,  of  demons,  of  the  thousand  spirits  of 
earth,  air,  water,  mountains  and  trees.  The 
Battak  is  like  a  man  driven  in  a  frenzied  pursuit 
round  and  roimd.  Ghosts  of  the  most  diverse 
kinds  lurk  in  house  and  village;   in  the  field  they 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM         131 

endanger  the  produce  of  labor;  in  the  forest  they 
terrify  the  woodcutter;  in  the  bush  they  hunt  the 
wanderer.  From  them  come  diseases,  madness, 
death  of  cattle,  famine.  Malicious  demons  sur- 
round women  during  pregnancy  and  at  confine- 
ment; they  lie  in  wait  for  the  child  from  the  day 
of  its  birth;  they  swarm  round  the  houses  at 
night;  they  spy  through  the  chinks  of  the  walls 
for  their  helpless  victims.  The  dead  friend  and 
brother  becomes  an  enemy,  and  his  coffin  and 
grave  are  the  abode  of  terror.  It  is  fear  that 
occasions  the  worship  of  the  departed.  Fear  is 
the  moving  power  of  animistic  religion,  in  Asia 
as  in  Africa. " 

And  it  is  not  only  fear  that  at  once   produces  And  of 
and   is  produced  by  animism.      It  breeds  witch-   Spiritual 
craft,  sorcery,  demonology,  and  in  Africa   it  has   Poverty. 
led   to   cannibalism   and   depopulation.      And   its  \ 
whole  ideal   of  religion,  in  spite  of   its   apparent 
spiritualization   of   the   universe,    is   earthly   and 
sensuous.      The  worshiper  is  worshiping  with  no 
confession,  no   love,  rarely  any  thanksgiving,  be- 
ings whom   he   fears  as  capable  of  harming  him 
in  his  material   interests,  and  what  he   is  seeking 
is   not    something    religious,   but    some    material 
good.     As  Dr.  Nassau  says: — 

The  being  to  whom  he  appeals  is  not  God.  True,  he 
does  not  deny  that  He  is ;  if  asked,  he  will  acknowl- 
edge His  existence.  But  that  is  all.  Very  rarely,  and 
only  in  extreme  emergencies,  does  he  make  an  appeal  to 
Him;  for  he  thinks  God  so  far  off,  so  inaccessible,  so 
indifferent   to  human  woes  and  wants,  that  a  petition  to 


18^      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Him  would  be  almost  in  vain.  He  therefore  turns 
to  some  one  of  the  mass  of  spirits  which  he  believes  to 
be  ever  near  and  observant  of  human  affairs,  in  which, 
as  former  human  beings,  some  of  them  once  had  part. 

As  to  the  character  of  the  salvation  sought,  it  is  not 
spiritual ;  it  is  a  purely  physical  salvation.  A  sense  of 
moral  and  spiritual  need  is  lost  sight  of,  although  not 
eliminated.  This  is  an  index  of  the  distance  the  negro 
has  traveled  away  from  Jehovah  before  he  finally 
reached  the  position  of  placing  his  trust  in  a  fetich. 
By  just  so  much  as  he  seems  to  himself  living  in  a 
world  crowded  with  unseen  but  powerful  spiritual  beings 
(with  whom  what  a  Christian  calls  *'sin"  has  no  repre- 
hensible moral  quality),  by  just  so  much  he  seems  to 
have  lost  sight  of  his  own  soul  and  its  moral  necessities. 

The  future  is  so  vague  that  in  the  thought  of  most 
tribes  it  contains  neither  heaven  nor  hell ;  there  is  no 
certain  reward  or  rest  for  goodness,  nor  positive  pun- 
ishment for  badness.  The  future  life  is  to  each  native 
largely  a  reproduction,  on  shadowy  and  intangible  lines, 
of  the  works  and  interests  and  passions  of  this  earthly 
life.  In  his  present  life,  with  its  savagery  and  oppres- 
sion and  dominance  of  selfish  greed  and  right  of  might, 
goodness  has  no  reward.  It  is  badness  which  in  his 
personal  experience  makes  the  largest  gains.  From 
this  point  of  view,  while  some  acts  are  indeed  called 
"good"  and  some  "bad"  (conscience  proving  its  simple 
existence  by  the  use  of  these  words  in  the  record  of 
language),  yet  conscience  is  not  much  troubled  by  its 
possessor's  badness.  There  is  little  sense  of  the  sinful- 
ness of  sin.  There  is  only  fear  of  possible  human 
injury  by  human  or  subsidized  spiritual  enemies.  This 
is  all  the  salvation  that  is  sought.  (Nassau,  "Fetichism 
in  West  Africa,"  p.  77  f.) 


Freed 


om. 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  133 

It  is  to  these  animistic  peoples  that  the  gospel  The  Goapel  a 
comes  as  a  mighty  revelation  and  deliverance.  It  Message  of 
unifies  the  world  to  them  with  its  doctrine  of  one  Joy  and 
God.  It  delivers  them  who  were  all  their  life- 
time subject  to  bondage,  by  showing  them  that 
this  God  is  both  power  and  love.  "The  message 
of  a  living  God,"  says  Warneck,  "in  contrast  to 
the  animistic  deities  who  live  a  self-centered  life 
in  heaven,  strikes  the  heathen's  heart.  It  is 
thoug-ht  a  sweet  messao^e  that  God  does  not  live 
in  unapproachable  retirement,  but  is  a  loving  and 
acting  One,  dealing  with  men,  blessing  or  pun- 
ishing them.  His  omnipotence  proved  through- 
out in  face  of  human  distress  and  demoniac 
power  wins  the  heathen's  heart,  and  invites  him 
to  try  this  great  and  good  God's  help.  Soon  he 
will  try  to  come  in  contact  with  God  through 
prayer,  and  then  rejoices,  childlike,  when  he 
finds  himself  heard.  Such  experience  overthrows 
superstition  and  fear.  This  immediate,  natural 
relation  to  the  almighty,  personal  God,  is  one 
of  the  loveliest  experiences  observed  in  animistic 
heathen,  and  is  not  uncommon."  (Report  of 
Commission  IV,  World  Missionary  Conference, 
Ch.  II.) 

No  2^eoples  of  the  world  make  a  stronger 
appeal  to  the  heart  of  the  Christian  Church  to- 
day than  the  animistic  people.  And  no  people 
are  readier  to  respond  to  the  gospel.  Without 
God  and  without  hope  in  the  world,  at  the  mercy 
of  evil  spirits  and  of  their  own  sorcerers,  dwelling 


134      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


Primitive 
Monotheism 
in  China. 


among  a  thousand  terrors,  the  arrows  o£  demons, 
shot  at  night,  and  the  pestilence  of  unseen  foes 
that  creeps  at  noonday,  poor  and  made  poorer  by 
the  ruinous  exactions  of  their  superstitions, — 
these  are  those  in  bondage  whom  the  gospel 
would  set  free ;  these  are  the  eyes  that  are  blinded, 
which  the  gospel  would  open  to  the  Light  that 
would  be  the  Light  of  all  the  World. 

It  is  this  animism  which  ruled  the  popular 
mind  of  China  before  Confucius  arose,  w4iich  in 
Chinese  form  rules  it  now  in  spite  of  Confucius, 
and  which  completely  transformed  the  original 
philosophy  of  Lao-tsze  until  his  system  became  a 
great  mass  of  polydemonistic,  polytheistic  super- 
stition. 

But  there  was  also  in  the  ancient  Chinese  reli- 
gion, and  there  is  in  Chinese  religion  to-day,  a 
far  nobler  element.  A  multitude  of  spirits 
roamed  about  the  world,  evil  spirits  causing  all 
evil.  Natural  objects  were  inhabited  by  spirits 
and  worshiped.  There  were  sacrifices  and  exor- 
cisms and  oracles.  But  over  all  this  there  were 
gods,  and  over  all  gods  was  the  superior  power 
called  Heaven,  the  Supreme  Ruler,  Shang-ti,  or 
God.  The  spirits  of  cloud  and  rain  and  wind 
were  ministers  assisting  Shang-ti.  In  the  prayers 
found  in  the  ^'Statutes  of  the  Ming  Dynasty" 
(1868-1642  B.  C.)  we  read:  ''It  is  yours,  O 
spirits,  with  your  Heaven-conferred  powers,  and 
nurturing  influences,  each  to  preside  as  guardian 
over  one  district,  as  ministers  assisting  the  great 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  135 

Worker  and  Transformer,  and  thus  the  people 
enjoy  your  meritorious  services."  Legge  con- 
tends that  the  early  religion  was  a  true  primitive 
monotheism,  "that  there  had  grown  up  round  it 
an  inferior  worship  of  multitudinous  spirits;  that 
this  inferior  worship  was  not  a  nature  worship, 
and  that  it  was  subordinate  to  the  homage  due  to 
God."  It  is  impossible  now  to  determine  how 
strong  the  popular  animism  was,  and  how  pure 
the  primitive  monotheism.  When  looking  back 
we  first  find  any  standing  ground  in  the  history, 
we  perceive  that  the  w^orship  of  Heaven,  of  the 
superior  ruler,  was  the  annual  function  of  the 
sovereign  of  China,  acting  for  himself  and  as  the 
representative  of  his  people,  that  the  worship  of 
the  spirits  of  ancestors  was  a  part  of  the  state 
ceremonial,  but  that  in  this  the  whole  people 
shared,  reverencing  their  forefathers  as  among 
the  immortal  spiritual  beings,  and  that  while  the 
idea  of  a  supreme  controlling  Providence  was  in 
the  background  of  the  people's  mind,  their  prac- 
tical daily  religion  was  a  worship  of  spirits,  and 
a  propitiation  of  demons  and  of  spiritualized 
natural  forces. 

This  was  the  religious  mind  of  China  when  Confucius. 
Confucius  came.  The  simple  facts  of  the  great 
teacher's  life  can  be  briefly  told.  He  was  born  in 
^1  B._C.  in  what  is  now  the  Province  of  Shan-  \ 
tung.  In  Chinese  his  name  is  not  Confucius,  but 
Kung-foo-tsze.  His  family  traced  its  lineage 
back   to  the  twenty-eighth   century  B.  C.  to  the 


136      THE   LIGHT   OF   THE    WORLD 

I  mythical  Hwang  Ti.  His  father  was  an  able  and 
prominent  officer,  over  seventy  years  of  age  when 
his  son  was  born.  He  died  when  his  son  was 
three  years  old,  and  his  mother  brought  him  up 
in  a  hard  struggle  w^ith  poverty,  a  school  whose 
lessons  he  learned  thoroughly.  ^^When  I  was 
young,  "  he  said  later  when  people  were  surprised 
at  the  many  things  he  could  do,  '^my  condition 
was  low,  and  I  acquired  my  ability  in  many 
things."  His  favorite  boyhood  play  was  in 
arranging  sacrificial  vessels  and  in  ceremonial 
posturing.  Fie  was  married  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, and  his  only  son,  Li,  was  born  the  next 
year.  We  find  him  now  in  charge  of  some 
public  stores  of  grain,  and  two  years  later  he 
begins  teaching,  not  boys,  but  young  men  who 
wished  to  know  the  history  and  doctrines  of  the 
great  past  which  shone  before  Confucius  as  the 
Golden  Age.  For  ten  years  or  more  he  continued 
this  teaching,  pursuing,  also,  his  own  researches 
into  antiquity,  and  studying  music,  of  which  he 
was  fond,  and  to  which  he  assigned  an  important 
place  in  the  education  of  individuals  and  the 
order  and  improvement  of  the  State.  By  this 
time  men  began  to  realize  that  a  great  mind  had 
come  among  them,  and  in  517  B.  C.  one  of  the 
chief  ministers  of  the  State  of  Lu,  where  he 
lived,  ordered  his  son  to  be  placed  in  Confucius' 
school.  He  now  visited  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, and  his  fame  was  greatly  increased.  Re- 
turning to  his  own  state,  great  disorder  broke  out, 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM         187 

and  it  was  some  sixteen  years  before  tranquility 
was  restored  and  he  became  magistrate  of  Chung- 
tu.  After  a  wonderful  success  there  in  reforming 
the  manners  of  the  jDeoplc,  by  methods  which 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  government,  he  was 
made  Minister  of  Works  and  of  Crime,  and  soon 
reformed  the  whole  state.  We  are  told,  ''He 
strengthened  the  ruling  house,  and  weakened  the 
ministers  and  chiefs.  A  transforming  govern- 
ment went  abroad.  Dishonesty  and  dissoluteness 
were  ashamed,  and  hid  their  heads.  Loyalty  and 
good  faith  became  the  characteristics  of  the  men, 
and  chastity  and  docility  those  of  the  women. 
Strangers  came  in  crowds  from  other  states." 
He  became  the  ideal  of  the  people.  But  the 
prosperity  of  Lu  aroused  the  envy  of  other  states, 
and  one  of  them  broke  down  the  influence  of 
Confucius  by  sending  a  present  of  beautiful 
women  and  fine  horses  to  the  Prince  of  Lu,  who 
turned  from  the  cold  virtue  of  the  Sage  to  these 
warm  j)leasures.  Confucius  and  his  doctrines 
were  neglected,  and  unwillingly  and  hoping  for 
recall  he  went  away. 

For  thirteen  years  Confucius  and  his  disciples 
wandered  from  state  to  state  looking  for  a  ruler 
who  would  ajDpreciate  and  accept  the  counsels  of 
the  philosopher,  but  in  vain.  He  bore  his  dis- 
appointments— all  the  keener  because  they  contra- 
dicted his  philosophy — with  patience  and  noble 
faith  in  the  ultimate  triumph  of  truth.  When 
his  disciples  were  alarmed  at  the  attack  of  a  mob 
upon   them,  he  calmly  said,  ''After   the    death    of 


1S8      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

King  Wan,  was  not  the  cause  of  letters  and  truth 
lodged  in  me?  If  heaven  had  wished  to  let  this 
cause  perish,  I  should  not  have  got  such  a  rela- 
tion to  it.  While  heaven  does  not  let  the  cause 
of  truth  23erish,  what  can  the  men  of  K'wang  do 
to  me?"  In  the  same  way,  on  another  occasion, 
when  they  were  attacked  by  a  band  employed  b}' 
a  malicious  officer  called  Hwan  T'ui,  Confucius 
observed,  '"Heaven  has  produced  the  virtue  that 
is  in  me;  what  can  Hwan  T'ui  do  to  me?" 

When  one  of  his  disciples  hesitated  to  describe 
his  master  to  a  ruler  who  had  asked  about  him, 
Confucius  said,  ''Why  did  you  not  say  that  I  am 
simply  a  man  who  in  his  eager  pursuit  of  knowl- 
edge forgets  his  food,  who  in  the  joy  of  its  attain- 
ment forgets  his  sorrows,  and  who  does  not 
perceive  that  old  age  is  coming  on?" 

After  many  hardships  and  bitter  experiences, 
Confucius  returned  in  483  B.  C.  to  Lu  for  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life.  He  was  treated  respect- 
fully, but  held  no  public  office.  He  gave  himself 
to  completing  his  literary  work,  and  then  in  478 
B.  C,  at  the  age  of  seventy-two  he  passed  away. 

''The  great  mountain  must  crumble; 
The  strong  beam  must  break ; 
And  the  wise  man  wither  away  like  a  plant/' 

were  the  oft  quoted  words  which  he  said  to  him- 
self the  mornino^  his  last  illness  beo^an.  "No 
intelligent  monarch  arises,"  he  added  to  a  dis- 
ciple. "There  is  no  prince  in  the  kingdom  who 
will  make  me  his  master.  My  time  has  come  to 
die." 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM  139 

Confucius  was  a  true  sage,  though  he  dis-  Character  of 
chaimed  any  such  title.  He  was  confident  that  Confucius, 
his  philosophy  was  adequate  to  meet  the  needs  of 
society,  but  to  him  it  was  not  his  own  philosophy 
but  only  the  accumulated  wisdom  of  the  past,  the 
principles  of  the  golden  age.  ^'A  transmitter 
and  not  a  maker,  believing  in  and  loving  the 
ancients,  I  venture  to  compare  myself  with  our 
old  P'ang,  "  was  his  description  of  himself.  No- 
where did  he  depart  from  the  language  here  used, 
and  he  resisted  every  temptation  to  usurp  honors 
which  did  not  belong  to  him.  Though  more 
deeply  versed  in  the  literature  of  his  country  than 
any  of  his  contemporaries,  he  yet  professed  him- 
self deficient  in  knowledge,  though  deeply 
enamoured  of  learning.  Though  looked  upon 
by  his  fellow  men  as  a  sage,  he  disclaimed  the 
possession  of  the  qualities  of  even  a  ^'superior 
man."  '^I  am  not  virtuous  enough,"  he  said, 
"to  be  free  from  anxieties;  not  wise  enough  to 
be  free  from  perplexities ;  and  not  bold  enough 
to  be  free  from  fear."  (Douglas,  ''Confucian- 
ism and  Taoism,"  p.  147.) 

He  was  a  poor  man,  whose  hands  were  clean 
of  all  corruption,  upright  in  all  personal  and 
public  relations,  a  seeker  for  truth  and  a  believer 
in  the  absolute  power  of  the  truth.  He  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  happy  in  his  home  relations, 
and  the  general  stiffness  and  propriety  of  his 
demeanor, — the  flower  of  that  ceremonial  posturing 
which  he  had  loved  as  a  boy, — are  well  illustrated 


140       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

in  the  story  of  his  attitude  toward  his  son  Li. 
An  inquisitive  disciple  once  asis;ed  the  boy, 
^'Have  you  heard  any  lessons  from  your  father 
different  from  what  we  have  all  heard?"  ''No," 
replied  Li;  "he  was  standing  alone  once  when  I 
was  passing  through  the  court  below  with  hasty 
steps  and  said  to  me,  'Have  you  read  the  Odes?' 
On  my  replying,  'Not  yet,'  he  added,  'If  you  do 
not  learn  the  Odes,  you  will  not  be  fit  to  converse 
with.'  Another  day,  in  the  same  place  and  the 
same  way,  he  said  to  me,  'Have  you  read  the 
rules  of  Propriety?'  On  my  replying,  'Not  yet,' 
he  added,  'If  you  do  not  learn  the  rules  of 
Propriety,  your  character  cannot  be  established.' 
'I  asked  one  thing,'  said  the  enthusiastic  disciple, 
'and  I  have  learned  three  things.  I  have  learnt 
about  the  Odes;  I  have  learnt  about  the  rules  of 
Propriety;  and  I  have  learnt  that  the  superior 
man  maintains  a  distant  reserve  towards  his 
son.'  " 

Confucius  himself  realized  the  moral  impotence 
of  his  philosophy  in  the  regeneration  of  character, 
and  even  in  the  normal  development  of  the 
superior  man.  "In  letters,"  he  said,  "I  am 
perhaps  equal  to  other  men ;  but  the  character  of 
the  superior  man,  carrying  out  in  his  conduct 
what  he  professes,  is  what  I  have  not  yet  attained 
to.  The  leaving  virtue  without  proper  cultiva- 
tion; the  not  thoroughly  discussing  what  is 
learned;  not  being  able  to  move  towards  right- 
eousness of  which  a  knowledge   is  gained;   and 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM         141 

not  being  able  to  change  what  is  not  good; — these 
are  the  things  which  occasion  me  solicitude." 
There  was  no  glow  of  piety  in  the  man. 
(Legge,  '^ Christianity  and  Confucianism  Com-, 
pared,  "  p.  22.)  He  evaded  all  religious  enquiry. 
He  discouraged  prayer.  "My  prayers,"  said  he, 
''were  offered  up  long  ago."  "What  he  means," 
sa3's  Pung  Kwang  Yu,  "is  that  he  considers  his 
prayers  to  consist  in  living  a  virtuous  life  and  in 
constantly  obeying  the  dictates  of  conscience." 
Again  said  Confucius,  "He  who  sins  against 
Heaven  has  no  j^lace  to  pray."  He  was  not  a 
poet,  nor  a  philosopher  in  any  creative  or  com- 
prehensive sense.  He  was  a  student  of  tradition 
and,  as  he  conceived  it,  a  pi:acti£aL politician.  ' 
He  believed  in  the  essential  goodness  and  order- 
liness of  human  nature;  that  men  are  as  naturally 
good  as  water  is  inclined  to  run  down  hill;  that 
all  they  need  is  example  and  instruction,  and  that 
a  right  political  philosophy  embodied  in  a  ruler 
would  reform  and  perfect  society.  In  spite  of  the 
optimism  which  sprang  from  such  an  inadequate 
philosophy, — a  philosophy  so  inconsistent  with 
the  facts  of  life, — Confucius  toward  the  end  began 
toJose_Jieart.  His  whole  experience  belied  his 
fundamental  principles.  He  felt  the  disappoint- 
ment of  it  keenly.  "My  principles  make  no 
progress,"  said  he,  "and  I, — how  shall  I  be 
viewed  in  future  ages?" 

Future  ages  answered  that  question  in  a  way  of  His  Influence, 
which  Confucius  never  dreamed.      "Never,"  says 

\ 


142      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

M.  Hue,  in  an  exagg-eration  which  has  truth  in 
it,  ''never  has  it  been  given  to  any  mortal  to 
exercise  during  so  many  centuries  so  extensive 
an  empire  over  his  fellow  creatures."  "It  is 
perhaps  not  too  much  to  say  of  him,"  wrote  so 
conservative  a  missionary  as  Dr.  Nevius,  "that 
the  system  of  ethics  and  morality  which  he 
taught  is  the  purest  which  has  ever  originated  in 
the  history  of  the  world  independent  of  the  divine 
revelation  in  the  Bible,  and  that  he  has  exerted  a 
greater  influence  for  good  upon  our  race  than  any 
other  uninspired  sage  of  antiquity."  (Nevius, 
"China  and  the  Chinese,"  p.  54.)  And  most 
significantly,  in  the  case  of  Confucius  as  in  the 
case  of  Buddha,  both  of  them  teachers  who 
deprecated  superstition,  and  who  taught  men  that 
they  were  sufficient  to  themselves  with  no^super- 
natural  aid,  the  religious  heart  of  man  responded 
by  making  the  teacher  himself  an  object  of 
worship.  His  example  and  his  books  became  the 
determinant  factors  in  Chinese  education,  and  "in 
the  year  1  A.  D.  there  began  the  practice  of  con- 
ferring, by  imperial  authority,  honorary  titles  on 
Confucius,  and  in  the  year  57  it  was  enacted  that 
sacrifices  should  be  offered  to  him  in  the  govern- 
ment colleges  throughout  the  country.  At  the 
present  day  he  is  worshiped  twice  a  year  on 
certain  days  in  the  middle  months  of  spring  and 
autumn.  Then  the  emperor  goes  in  state  to  the 
imperial  college  in  Peking,  and  performs  his 
homage,    and    joresents    the    appointed    offerings, 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM         143 

before  the  spirit  tablets  of  Confucius  and  four  of 
his  most  famous  disciples.  These  are  the  words 
of  the  principal  prayer  on  the  occasion:  ^'On  this 
month  of  this  year,  I,  the  emperor,  offer  sacrifice 
to  the  philosopher  K'ung,  the  ancient  Teacher, 
the  perfect  Sage,  and  say,  O  Teacher,  in  virtue 
equal  to  heaven  and  earth,  whose  doctrines 
embrace  the  time  past  and  the  present,  thou  didst 
digest  and  transmit  the  six  Classics,  and  didst 
hand  down  lessons  for  all  generations!  Now  in 
this  second  month  of  spring  (or  autumn)  in 
reverent  observance  of  the  old  statutes,  with 
victims,  silks,  spirits,  and  fruits,  I  offer  sacrifice 
to  thee."  (Legge,  ''The  Religions  of  China," 
p.  148.)  Thus  the  religious  sjDirit  of  the  Chinese 
people  took  its  strange  revenge  on  the  great  secu- 
laristic  philosopher,  and  comprehended  him  in 
its  vast  embrace,  reaching  from  the  crudest 
fetichism  through  spirit,  sage  and  god  to  high 
heaven  and  the  Supreme  Ruler  of  ail. 

And  yet  it  is  not  quite  adequate  to  call  Confu-   fj^g  Belief 
cius  a  secularistic   philosopher.      He  believed   in   Heaven. 
Providence,    and   drew   the    sanctions    of    heaven 
over    his    entire    political    philosophy.      But    his 
whole  conception  had  to  do  with  a  human  govern- 
mental organization. 

His  "idea  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  his  'All 
under  heaven,'  was  a  visible  heaven  on  earth, 
the  emperor,  the  only  son  of  heaven,  holding,  as 
such,  power  and  dominion  over  all  the  earth  as 
his  indisputable  right.      His   imperial   laws  were 


144      THE  LtGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

heavenly  laws,  like  the  laws  o£  nature  inalterable; 
every  transgression  causing  evil  consequences, 
even  in  nature.  A  return  into  the  right  path 
restores  the  perturbed  harmony.  The  foreign 
treaties,  forcing  on  China  the  acknowledgment  of 
other  independent  states  as  equal  if  not  superior 
to  China,  crushes  this  fundamental  doctrine  of 
Confucianism. 

"Ancient  religion  was  simply  continued,  but 
made  subordinate  to  the  government  of  the  state. 
The  emperor  as  son  of  heaven  is  subject  only  to 
heaven;  all  gods  and  spirits  are  subject  to  him, 
are  rewarded  and  punished,  promoted  or  degraded 
by  the  emperor  and  his  mandarins  in  accordance 
with  their  rank.  1'his  peculiarity  has  become 
very  prominent  in  Modern  Confucianism. 

"As  the  Chinese  Empire  is  regarded  as  a 
visible  heavenly  kingdom  on  earth,  so  the  invisi- 
ble world  corresponds  exactly  to  every  Chinese 
institution,  even  in  its  smallest  details.  There  is 
one  highest  ruler  in  heaven  corresponding  to  the 
emperor  on  earth;  under  Him  are  innumerable 
gods  of  all  degrees,  rulers  of  states  or  large 
provinces  down  to  invisible  constables  and  kitchen 
gods.  (Modern  Confucianism  went  consistently 
into  the  extreme,  that  the  deceased  have  the  same 
needs  in  the  other  world  as  on  earth,  which  needs 
have  to  be  supplied  by  their  descendants.  There 
are  also  the  same  punishments ;  the  torments  in 
hell  are  counterfeits  of  the  tortures  in  Chinese 
courts   of  law,    in  prisons   and  on   the   execution 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  145 

ground.  The  gods  are  just  as  accessible  to 
bribes  as  the  mandarins  on  earth.)  Confucius 
preferred  to  speak  of  heaven  instead  of  God  and 
gods,  probably  in  order  to  avoid  confusion  with 
such  beings  called  gods  at  the  time,  but  he 
allowed  error  to  have  its  own  way."  (Faber, 
''Confucianism,"  p.  7.) 

All  this  was  due  to  Confucius'  principle  of 
simply  sanctifying  and  transmitting  the  sacred 
past.  Into  the  Classics,  which  are  the  real  sacred 
books  of  China,  were  gathered  up  all  the  prin- 
ciples of  this  past,  whatsoever  they  were,  in 
|X)litics  and  in  religion,  both  the  animism  and 
the  monotheism;  and  the  practice  of  the  Classics 
has  been  the  politics  and  religion  of  China.  And 
yet  this  statement  needs  to  be  supplemented  to 
gain  a  just  view  of  Confucius  and  of  the  modern 
Chinese  religion.  On  the  one  hand,  Confucius 
did  not  support,  more  than  was  unavoidable  in 
his  view,  the  popular  animism;  and,  on  the 
other,  he  added  nothing  to  the  spiritual  legacy  of 
ancient  Chinese  monotheism,  and  it  is  question- 
able whether  he  transmitted  all  of  it.  Dr.  Legge 
says  he  knows  of  only  one  case  in  which  Con- 
fucius used  the  personal  name  of  God,  except 
when  he  was  quoting  from  the  older  books.  His 
practice  was  to  avoid  any  such  reference,  and  in- 
stead to  use  the  indefinite  and  merely  providential 
term  of  heaven.  But  the  caution  of  Confucius  in 
moderating  all  supernaturalism  has  been  offset  by 
the   racial    superstition   of    the    Chinese    people, 


146      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

which  has  poured  into  the  actual  religion  of 
China  to-day  a  great  volume  of  animistic  view 
and  practice,  which,  even  if  it  can  be  separated 
from  Confucianism,  nevertheless  affects  the  life 
and  opinions  of  every  Confucianist.  And  it  is 
indeed  entirely  lair  to  say  that  these  religious 
elements,  these  distinctly  animistic  elements,  are 
a  part  of  modern  Confucianism.  The  Hon.  Purig 
Kwang  Yu  so  represents  Confucianism: — 

The  Confucianists  take  the  meaning  of  the  word 
''ti,"  dispenser  of  heaven,  in  their  interpretation  of  the 
notes  of  Confucius  to  the  Book  of  Changes.  ''Ti," 
therefore,  is  synonymous  with  heaven,  and  there  is  only 
one  such.  The  heaven  and  earth  constitute  a  dualism. 
The  conjunction  of  their  vital  essences  brings  forth  a 
third,  the  inscrutable  part  of  which  is  called  a  spirit. 
The  heaven  unites  its  essences  with  the  essences  of  the 
sun,  moon  or  stars,  and  the  resulting  products  of 
spiritual  force  and  energy  are  called  respectively  the 
spirit  of  the  sun,  moon  and  stars.  These  are  the  spirits 
of  heaven.  When  heaven  unites  its  essences  with  the 
essences  of  the  earth's  elevations  and  depressions,  the 
resulting  products  of  spiritual  force  and  energy  are 
called  the  spirits  of  mountains,  rivers,  lakes  and  seas. 
These  are  the  spirits  of  the  earth.  The  spirits  of  the 
heaven  and  the  earth  cannot  be  represented  by  human 
likenesses,  or  by  natural  objects,  nor  can  they  be  called 
by  proper  names  or  clothed  with  the  vesture  of  mortals. 
How  much  more  is  this  true  of  the  Lord  of  lords! 

The  spiritual  essence  of  man  produced  by  the  vjnion 
of  celestial  and  terrestrial  forces,  is  the  soul  which  par- 
takes of  a  twofold  nature,  the  celestial  element  being 
'Sven"  and  the  terrestrial  element  being  "pah."  The 
separation  of  these  two  elements  gives  rise  to  the  exist- 
ence of  ghosts. 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM         147 

There  are,  then,  celestial  spirits,  terrestrial  spirits, 
and  human  spirits.  If  any  of  these  spirits,  bj  some 
exercise  of  power,  or  by  some  supernatural  action, 
benefits  the  creation  in  some  way,  thus  emulating  the 
goodness  of  heaven  to  some  extent,  then  it  is  the  part 
of  the  national  government  to  take  cognizance  of  such 
action  by  raising  the  beneficent  spirit  to  the  rank  of 
"ti,"  and  enrolling  his  name  in  the  catalogue  of  canon- 
ized spirits.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  such  acts  of 
the  national  government  that  spirits  are  "tis"  or  rulers 
of  heaven.  What  is  really  meant  by  this  is  that  benefi- 
cent spirits,  by  showing  their  goodness  to  the  animated 
creation  in  general  and  to  mankind  in  particular,  are 
worthy  to  take  their  places  by  the  side  of  heaven  and 
earth  as  the  benefactors  of  mankind.  It  will  be  seen 
that  the  ideas  of  God  and  spirits,  as  derived  from  revela- 
tion, are  so  different  from  the  conceptions  of  God  and 
spirits  which  the  Confucianists  have,  that  what  is  taught 
by  the  one  cannot  but  be  different  from  what  is  taught 
by  the  other.  (Report  of  Parliament  of  Religions, 
Vol.  I,  p.  378.) 

If  we  eliminate,  however,  those  elements  which   State 
lead  us  into  regions  where  Confucius  declined  to   Worship  and 
go,  and    consider  only  the   religious   elements    in    rilial  Piety. 
Confucianism  which   were   given   high    place  by 
the  Sage  himself,  we  shall  find  that  they  are  two, 
the  State  jwpi'ship   and  ancestor  worship.      (Gib- 
son, ''Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods  in 
South    China,"    ^.    88    f. )     The    former    is    the 
annual  representative    worship    by  the   emperor, 
in  Peking,  at  the  time   of  the   summer  solstice, 
when,  as   the   Son   of  Heaven,   he   offers   prayers 
for  his  jDeople.      The   latter   is   the  very  warp  of 
Chinese  religion,  over  which   all   other  ideas  arc 


148      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

thrown  as  woof.  It  existed  before  Confucius, 
and  was  approved  and  sanctified  by  him.  It  has 
produced  a  family  solidarity  found  nowhere  else 
in  the  world.  It  .has  led  to  the  legalization  of 
concubinage  as  essential  at  times  to  the  securing 
of  sons  to  maintain  the  family  line  and  the  unend- 
ing worship  which  is  indispensable  to  the  dead 
and  the  living.  It  has  done  more  than  any  other 
single  influence,  except  the  memorizing  of  the 
Classics  as  the  sole  learning,  to  fossilize  Chinese 
life,  and  to  bind  the  future  in  the  shackles  of  the 
past.  It  is  the  religious  expression  of  a  filial 
piety  which  has  many  noble  features,  and  the 
good  of  which  must  not  be  lost  when  the  idola- 
trous elements  are  rendered  no  longer  possible,  as 
they  will  be  by  the  acceptance  of  true  notions  of 
the  human  soul  and  of  the  natural  world  and  of 
the  spiritual  universe.  No  people  in  the  world 
should  sympathize  more  than  Christians  with  the 
Chinese  in  their  devotion  to  their  ancestors  and 
in  their  exaltation  of  filial  piety  into  the  greatest 
of  virtues.  A  true  and  complete  loyalty  to  the 
I  great  Father  God  goes  best  with  true  loyalty  to 
I  the  earthly  fatherhoods,  which  are  named  after 
the  heavenly.  And  Chinese  filial  piety,  when 
once  its  pagan  elements  are  dissolved,  is  a  noble 
base  on  which  to  build  a  Christian  Society. 
Confucianism  And  it  was  in  socicty,  not  in  religion,  that 
Primarily  Confucius'     interest    lay.       He    was    an    ancient 

Political.  sociologist.      He  viewed  man   and   ethics   always 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM         149 

in  relation  to  politics.  Dr.  Faber  sets  this  forth  in 
some  propositions  embodying  his  central  doc- 
trine:— 

Man  is  considered  not  from  a  religious,  not  from  a 
mystical,  nor  again  frotn  a  materialistic,  but  from  a 
humane-moral  point  of  view;  /.  e.,  man  as  man  in  rela- 
tion to  men. 

It  contains  nothing  on  the  origin  of  man.  He 
appears  as  a  blossom  of  nature  and  in  highest  perfection 
as  an  associate  of  Heaven  and  Earth.  . 

The  ideal  and  the  powers  for  carrying  it  out  lie  only 
|n  man  himself.  The  holy  man  is  the  representative  of 
the  ideal  man  by  nature,  and  the  superior  man  of  the 
ideal  man  by  moral  perfection. 

Sin  is  the  excess  in  human  desires  and  endeavors  ;  by 
reverting  into  the  right  path  it  ceases., 

Man  is  free ;  destiny  only  presents  bounds  which  it 
is  useless,  even  injurious,  to  break. 

All  virtues  are  directly  connected  with  humanity,  as 
virtue  par  excellence. 

All  public  virtue  presupposes  private  virtue.  The 
latter  must  therefore  be  the  chief  aim  of  the  superior 
man.  But  not  as  hermit,  but  as  child,  brother,  friend 
and  subject. 

The  steps  on  the  way  to  perfection  are:  perfect 
knowledge,  a  true  mind,  right  sentiment  of  the  heart, 
culture  of  the  whole  person;  furthermore,  an  influence 
over  family,  state  and  things  generally. 

The  task  of  the  state  is  the  physical  charge  and  the 
moral  education  of  the  people;  the  highest  glory  is 
peace,  not  war  and  anarchy.  (Faber,  "Systematical 
Digest  of  the  Doctrines  of  Confucius,"  pp.  128-131.) 

Christianity  casts  every  one  of  these  ideas  in  a 
different  form,  in  a  truer  form  as  regards  sin,  and 
in  each  case  in  a  form  which  recognizes  the 
spiritual   principles   in   man   and   in   society,  and 


150       THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

which  relates  all  human  action  and  organization 
to  God  and  the  Kingdom  of  God.  All  this  was 
as  much  outside  of  the  world  of  Confucius  as  a 
world  of  three  dimensions  is  outside  of  a  world 
of  two. 
The  The  political  doctrine  of  Confucius  is  set  forth 

Ciaaaics.  jj^  ^]-,g  Classics,  as  the  nine  great  books  of   Con- 

fucianism are  called.  These  nine  are  The  Five 
King  and  The  Four  Shoo.  The  Five  King 
are  The  Book  of  Changes,  The  Book  of 
Historical  Documents,  The  Book  of  Poetry, 
The  Record  of  Rites,  and  Spring  and  Autumn, 
which  is  a  chronicle  of  events  extending  from 
B.  C.  721  to  B.  C.  480.  These  five  books  are 
loosely  attributed  to  Confucius,  but  only  the  last 
of  them  can  be  described  as  of  his  making.  The 
Four  Shoo  are  the  Confucian  Analects,  a  record 
of  the  sayings  of  Confucius,  The  Great  Learn- 
ings now  attributed  to  one  of  his  disciples.  The 
Doctrine  of  the  Mean,  ascribed  to  his  grandson, 
and  the  fourth  contains  the  works  of  Mencius. 
A  few  quotations  from  the  Classics  will  suffice 
to  show,  though  very  inadequately,  their  general 
tone  and  character: — 

In  the  way  of  the  superior  man,  there  are  four  things 
to  not  one  of  which  have  I  as  yet  attained :  To  serve  my 
father  as  I  would  require  my  son  to  serve  me;  to  serve 
my  elder  brother  as  I  would  require  my  younger  brother 
to  serve  me  ;  to  behave  to  a  friend  as  I  would  require 
him  to  behave  to  me.  Earnest  in  practicing  the  ordi- 
nary virtues,  and  careful  in  speaking  about  them;  if,  in 
his  conduct,  he  has  anything  defective^  the  superior  rnan 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  151 

dares  not  but  exert  himself;  and  if,  in  his  words,  he 
has  any  excess,  he  dares  not  allow  himself  such  license. 
Thus  his  words  have  respect  to  his  actions,  and  his 
actions  have  respect  to  his  words ;  is  it  not  complete 
sincerity  which  makes  the  superior  man? 

The  superior  man  does  not  wait  till  he  sees  things  to 
be  cautious,  nor  till  he  hears  things  to  be  apprehensive. 
There  is  nothing  more  visible  than  what  is  secret,  and 
nothing  more  manifest  than  what  is  minute.  There- 
fore, the  superior  man  is  watchful  over  himself  when 
he  is  alone. 

He  who  possesses  sincerity — absolutely,  that  is— is  he 
who  without  effort  hits  what  is  right,  and  apprehends 
without  the  exercise  of  thought:  he  is  the  sage  who 
naturally  and  easily  embodies  the  right  way.  He  who 
attains  to  sincerity  is  he  who  chooses  what  is  good,  and 
firmly  holds  it  fast.  And  to  this  attainment  there  are 
requisite  the  extensive  study  of  what  is  good,  accurate 
enquiry  about  it,  careful  reflection  on  it,  the  clear  dis- 
crimination of  it,  and  the  earnest  practice  of  it. 

The  ancients  .  .  .  washing  to  be  sincere  in  their 
thoughts,  first  extended  to  the  utmost  their  knowledge. 
Such  extension  of  knowledge  lay  in  the  investigation  of 
things.  Things  being  investigated,  knowledge  became 
complete.  Their  knowledge  being  complete,  their 
thoughts  were  sincere.  Their  thoughts  being  sincere, 
their  hearts  were  then  rectified.  Their  hearts  being 
rectified,  their  persons  were  cultivated.  Their  persons 
being  cultivated,  their  families  were  regulated.  Their 
families  being  regulated,  their  states  were  rightly 
governed.  Their  states  being  rightly  governed,  the 
whole  empire  was  made  tranquil  and  happy. 

It  is  not  possible  for  a  man  to  teach  others  who  can- 
not teach  his  own  family.  Therefore  a  ruler,  without 
going  beyond  his  family,  completes  the  lessons  for  the 
3tate.     There  is    filial    piety ;  therewith    the    sovereign 


152       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

should  be  served.  There  is  fraternal  submission,  with 
which  the  elders  and  superiors  should  be  served.  There 
is  kindness,  with  which  the  multitude  should  be 
treated.  .  .  .  From  the  loving  example  of  one  family 
the  whole  state  becomes  loving;  and  from  its  courte- 
sies, the  whole  state  becomes  courteous ;  while,  from 
the  ambition  and  perverseness  of  one  man,  the  whole 
state  may  be  led  to  rebellious  disorder — such  is  the 
nature  of  influence. 

With  the  right  men,  the  growth  of  government  is 
rapid,  just  as  vegetation  is  rapid  in  the  earth;  and 
indeed  their  government  might  be  called  an  easily  grow- 
ing rush.  Therefore  the  administration  of  government 
lies  in  getting  proper  men.  Such  men  are  to  be  got  by 
means  of  the  ruler's  own  character.  That  character  is 
to  be  cultivated  by  his  treading  in  the  ways  of  duty. 
And  the  teaching  those  ways  of  duty  is  to  be  cultivated 
by  the  cherishing  of  benevolence. 

What  is  meant  by  ''the  making  the  whole  empire 
peaceful  and  happy  depends  on  the  government  of  the 
state,"  is  this:  when  the  sovereign  behaves  to  his  aged 
as  the  aged  should  be  behaved  to,  the  people  become 
filial ;  when  the  sovereign  behaves  to  his  elders  as 
elders  should  be  behaved  to,  the  people  learn  brotherly 
submission;  when  the  sovereign  treats  compassionately 
the  young  and  helpless,  the  people  do  the  same. 

Such  are  the  ideas  which  have  molded  the 
education  o£  China.  For  centuries  the  Chinese 
people  have  saturated  their  minds  in  the  Classics. 
In  the  results  we  have  a  unique  Illustration  of 
what  can  be  accomplished  by  fashioning  an 
isolated  nation  for  ages  by  government  education 
in  a  single,  unvarying  set  of  text-books.  Con- 
fucius came  to  his  unique  place  In  China's 
thought  because  he  embodied  the  essential   Chi- 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  15,^ 

nese  character.  He  originated  nothing.  He 
siinply  expressed  the  genius  of  the  race.  But 
in  giving  China  this  einbodimcnt  and  expression 
in  his  character  and  his  writings,  he  supplied  the 
agency  by  which  the  racial  character  was  intensi- 
fied and  its  genius  fixed  irrevocably.  A  perma- 
nent national  identity  has  been  produced,  which 
some  dav  the  gospel  is  to  redeein  and  to  put  to 
world  uses  of  which  Confucius  could  not  have 
conceived. 

The  last  of  the  Confucian  Classics  is  the  M< 
volume  containing  the  writings  of  Mencius, 
whose  name  as  a  teacher  is  reverenced  in  China 
next  to  that  of  Confucius  himself.  Mencius  is 
the  Latinized  form  of  Mang-tsze,  ''The  philoso- 
pher Mang. "  He  was  born  B.  C.  371  and  died 
B.  C.  288,  at  the  age  of  eighty-three.  He  was  a 
contemporary  of  Aristotle  and  Demosthenes, 
neither  of  whom  has  wielded  a  greater  influence 
over  posterity.  As  with  Confucius,  his  father 
died  when  he  was  young,  and  he  was  brought  up 
by  a  wonderful  mother.  (Legge,  ''The  Life  and 
Works  of  Mencius,"  pp.  16-18.)  He  was  an 
admirer  and  student  of  Confucius.  "Although  I 
could  not  be  a  disciple  of  Confucius  myself,"  he 
said,  "I  have  endeavored  to  cultivate  my  virtue 
by  means  of  others  who  were."  His  lot  fell  on 
troublesome  times,  and  he  had  to  meet  strange 
new  doctrines,  among  them  those  of  Shin-meng, 
an  ancient  Tolstoi  or  Ruskin,  who  deprecated 
division  of  labor  and  would   have   the   sovereign 


154       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

grow  his  own  rice  and  cook  his  own  meals. 
Mencius  loyally  applied  the  doctrine  of  Confucius- 
to  the  new  days.  Rulers  consulted  him  and 
sometimes  accepted,  sometimes  rejected,  his  coun- 
sel. For  the  most  part  his  lot  was  like  his  great 
predecessor's,  and  for  the  last  twenty  years  of  his 
life  he  disappeared  from  courts,  and  in  retirement 
taught  the  disciples  who  gathered  to  him,  and 
compiled  the  works  which  have  lived  and  molded 
China  to  this  day.  When  the  philosopher  Ching 
was  asked  whether  Mencius  might  be  pronounced 
to  be  a  sage,  he  replied,  '^I  do  not  dare  to  say 
altogether  that  he  was  a  sage,  but  his  learning 
had  reached  the  extremest  point."  The  same 
great  philosopher  also  said,  ''The  merit  of 
Mencius  in  resfard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  sasfes  is 
more  than  can  be  told.  Confucius  only  spoke  of 
benevolence,  but  as  soon  as  Mencius  opens  his 
mouth  we  hear  of  benevolence  and  righteousness. 
Confucius  only  spoke  of  the  will  or  mind,  but 
Mencius  enlarged  also  on  the  nourishment  of  the 
passion-nature.  In  these  two  respects  his  merit 
was  great. "  ''Mencius  did  great  service  to  the 
world  by  his  teaching  the  goodness  of  man's 
nature." 

The  Scholar  Yang  Kwei-shan  says:  "The 
great  object  of  Mencius  in  his  writings  is  to 
rectify  men's  hearts,  teaching  them  to  preserve 
their  heart  and  nourish  their  nature,  and  to 
recover  their  lost  heart.  When  he  discourses  of 
benevolence,  righteousness,  propriety,  and  knowl- 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM         155 

edge,  he  refers  to  the  principles  of  these  in  the 
heart  commiserating,  feeling  shame  and  dislike, 
affected  with  modesty  and  complaisance,  approv- 
ing and  disapproving.  When  he  speaks  of  the 
evils  springing  from  perverted  speakings,  he 
says,  'Growing  first  in  the  mind,  they  prove  in- 
jurious to  government.'  When  he  shows  how  a 
prince  should  be  served,  he  says,  ^Correct  what 
is  wrong  in  his  mind.  Once  rectify  the  prince, 
and  the  kingdom  will  be  settled  '  With  him  the 
thousand  changes  and  ten  thousand  operations  of 
men  all  come  from  the  mind  or  heart.  If  a  man 
once  rectify  his  heart,  little  else  will  remain  for 
him  to  do."  (Legge,  ''The  Life  and  Works 
of  Mencius,"  p.  41  f.) 

Of  Mencius'  character,  Dr.  Legge  says:  ''While 
we  are  not  to  look  to  Mencius  for  new  truths,  the 
peculiarities  of  his  natural  character  were  more 
striking  than  those  of  his  master.  There  was  an 
element  of  'the  heroical*  about  him.  He  was  a 
dialectician,  moreover.  If  he  did  not  like  dis- 
puting, as  he  protested  that  he  did  not,  yet,  when 
forced  to  it,  he  showed  himself  a  master  of  the 
art.  An  ingenuity  and  subtlety  which  we  cannot 
but  enjoy  often  mark  his  reasons.  We  have  more 
sympathy  with  him  than  with  Confucius.  He 
comes  closer  to  us.  He  is  not  so  awe-ful,  but  he 
is  more  admirable.  The  doctrines  of  the  sages 
take  a  tinge  from  his  mind  in  passing  through  it, 
and  it  is  with  that  Mencian  character  about  them 
that  they  are  now  held  by  the  cultivated  classes  and 


156       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

by  readers  generally. "  (Legge,  ^'The  Life  and 
Works  of  Mencius, "  p.  43.) 

Mencius  held  the  same  general  ethical  and 
religious  view  as  Confucius.  ''The  five  regular 
constituents  of  our  moral  nature"  are  the  prin- 
ciples, attributes  and  faculties  of  benevolence, 
righteousness,  propriety,  v^isdom,  and  sincerity. 
The  duties  of  the  human  lot  in  the  five  relations, 
as  stated  by  Mencius,  are  ''between  father  and 
son,  affection;  between  ruler  and  subject,  right- 
eousness; between  husband  and  wife,  attention  to 
their  separate  functions;  between  elders  and 
youngers,  a  proper  distinction;  and  between 
friends,  fidelity."  (Legge,  "Christianity  and 
Confucianism  Compared,"  p.  11.) 

He  had  the  same  placid,  superficial,  daily 
contradicted  optimism  as  to  human  nature. 
"The  tendency  of  man's  nature  to  good  is  like 
the  tendency  of  water  to  flow  downwards.  There 
are  none  but  have  this  tendency  to  good,  just  as 
all  water  flows  downwards.  By  striking  water 
and  causing  it  to  leap  up,  you  may  make  it  go 
over  your  forehead,  and,  by  damming  and  leading 
it,  you  may  force  it  up  a  hill ;  but  are  such  move- 
ments according  to  the  nature  of  water.?  It  is 
the  force  applied  which  causes  them.  When  men 
are  made  to  do  what  is  not  good,  their  nature  is 
dealt  with  in  this  way."  (Legge,  "The  Life  and 
Works  of  Mencius,"  p.  58.) 

And  yet  of  nature  as  God  meant  it  to  be,  as  it 
is  in  His  ideal,  this  is  the  true  view,  and  Mencius 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM         157 

was  asserting  a  great  Christian  truth  when  he  put 
his  view  in  such  an  ideal  form.  ^'From  the  feel- 
ings proper  to  it,"  said  he,  ^'we  see  that  it  is 
constituted  for  the  practice  of  what  is  good. 
This  is  what  I  mean  in  saying  that  the  nature  is 
good.  If  men  do  what  is  not  good,  the  blame 
cannot  be  imputed  to  their  natural  powers." 

His  doctrine  of  human  nature  as  formed  for 
virtue  is  a  noble  doctrine.  The  inadequacy  of 
his  view  lies  in  the  fact  that  he  does  not  realize 
that  the  ideal  has  been  defaced  and  that  it  cannot 
restore  itself.  He  is  like  Confucius  in  knowing 
nothing  of  sin  as  the  victorious  foe  of  ideal 
human  nature,  or  of  a  way  in  which  men  may 
recover  in  God  the  nature  which  they  have  lost 
and  be  made  secure  in  it  by  a  supernatural  life. 

The  third  great  religious  teacher  of  China  was  Lao-tsze. 
the  philosopher  Lao-tsze.  The  name  is  probably 
a  title  of  respect  meaning  ^'the  old  or  venerable 
philosopher."  He  was  born  in  what  is  now  the 
Province  of  Honan,  in  B.  C.  604,  and  tradition 
says  he  was  eighty  years  old  and  an  old  man  with 
white  hair  when  he  was  born.  In  517  B.  C.  it 
is  said  that  Confucius  came  to  see  him,  the  older 
teacher's  fame  having  spread  far,  and  the  inter- 
view was  not  harmonious.  ''Those  whom  you 
talk  about,"  said  Lao-tsze,  ''are  dead,  and  their 
bones  are  moldered  to  dust;  only  their  words  are 
left.  Moreover,  when  the  superior  man  gets  his 
time  he  mounts  aloft;  but,  when  the  time  is 
against    him,    he    moves    as     if    his     feet    were 


158       THE  LIGHT  OP  THE  WORLD 

entangled.  I  have  heard  that  a  good  merchant, 
although  he  has  rich  treasures  deeply  stored, 
appears  as  if  he  were  poor,  and  that  the  superior 
man,  though  his  virtue  is  complete,  is  yet  to  out- 
ward seeming  stupid.  Put  away  your  proud  air 
and  many  desires,  your  insinuating  habit  and 
wild  will.  These  are  of  no  advantage  to  you. 
This  is  all  that  I  have  to  tell  you."  After  the 
interview,  we  are  told,  Confucius  said  to  his  dis- 
ciples, ''I  know  how  birds  can  fly,  fishes  swim, 
and  animals  run.  But  the  runner  may  be  snared, 
the  swimmer  hooked,  and  the  flyer  shot  by  the 
arrow.  But  there  is  the  dragon:  I  cannot  tell 
how  he  mounts  on  the  wind  through  the  clouds 
and  rises  to  heaven.  To-day  I  have  seen  Lao- 
tsze,  and  can  only  compare  him  to  the  dragon." 
Lao-tsze  was  interested  in  metaphysics.  His 
mind  passed  behind  the  ceremonial  ideas  and 
political  traditions  of  Confucius.  He  wanted  to 
find  the  ultimate  base  of  things.  The  transitory 
issues  of  the  day  were  of  little  interest  to  him. 
He  withdrew  from  them  to  seek  the  inner  secret 
of  life.  "The  world  is  joyful  and  merry  as  on 
a  day  of  sacrifice,"  he  said;  "I  alone  prefer  soli- 
tude and  quiet  and  prefer  not  to  pry  into  futurity. 
I  am  like  an  infant  ere  it  has  grown  to  be  a 
child;  listless  I  roam  hither  and  thither,  as 
though  I  had  no  home  to  go  to.  Confused  and 
dim,  while  the  vulgar  are  enlightened,  I  alone 
am  in  the  dark,  tossed  to  and  fro  like  the  sea, 
roaming  without   cessation."     Before  he  retired 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM  159 

wholly  from  the  world,  he  wrote  a  book  for  one 
who  asked  him  before  he  went  to  leave  behind 
what  he  had  found,  and  this  book  we  have  still 
in  the  Tao  Teh  King.  After  writing  it,  Lao-tsze 
passed  out  from  the  kingdom  alone  and  unattended 
and  was  seen  no  more. 

His  book  is  a  ''Treatise  on  the  Absolute  and  The  Tao  Tek 
the  Actual."  His  doctrine  is  that  we  must  '^^^^• 
empty  ourselves  and  be  free  fi'xjm  preoccupation 
if  we  would  be  ready  to  receive;  that  emptiness 
is  necessary  to  usefulness,  that  this  emptiness  is 
freedom  from  selfish  motives;  that  we  must  be 
humble  to  learn;  that  the  highest  good  is  like 
water,  supple,  soft,  silent,  always  seeking  the 
low  place, and  yet  the  most  serviceable  and  strong 
of  all  things;  that  the  three  precious  things  are 
compassion,  economy  and  want  of  presumption; 
that  good  must  be  returned  for  evil,  and  violence 
be  laid  aside.  So  far  the  doctrine  is  unexcep- 
tionable, but  further,  with  the  progress  of  knowl- 
edge and  life,  Lao-tsze  had  no  sympathy,  and 
his  doctrine  would  have  dissolved  society  into 
units,  each  seeking  by  retirement  an  escape  from 
the  confusion  of  things.  Professor  Douglas 
holds,  also,  that  Lao-tsze  knew  nothing  of  a  I 
personal  God,  so  far  as  we  may  judge  from  his  ! 
treatise,  ''and,"  he  adds,  "a  belief  in  such  a 
being  would  be  in  opposition  to  the  whole  tenor 
of  his  philosophy."  ("Confucianism  and  Tao- 
ism," p.  211.)  Professor  Legge  is  less  certain, 
but   says,   "While   the    existence   of    God    is   not 


160       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

denied,  there  is  no  inculcation  of  religion  in  the 
book.  Lao-tsze's  Taoism  is  the  exhibition  of  a 
way  or  method  of  living  which  men  should  cul- 
tivate as  the  highest  and  purest  development  of 
their  nature."  (Legge,  "The  Religions  of 
China,"  p.  229.) 

But  in  the  case  ©f  Lao-tsze,  once  again,  the 
religious  instinct,  thwarted  and  unled,  twists 
upon  itself  in  abortive  forms  and  takes  revenge 
upon  those  who  have  disappointed  it.  Lao-tsze 
is  now  a  god.  Taoism,  the  religion  which  takes 
its  name  from  the  title  of  his  book,  has  made 
him  one  of  the  Taoist  triad,  the  "Three  Pure 
Ones,"  who  sit  together  in  serene  stillness  in  ten 
thousand  temples  and  look  down  upon  scenes 
which  Lao-tsze  despised.  And  now  worked 
upon  by  Buddhism  and  gathering  up  into  itself 
the  indigenous  animism  of  the  land,  Taoism  has 
become  a  mass  of  superstitions,  idolatry,  demon- 
olatry  and  geomancy,  which  the  best  thought  of 
China  regards  with  contempt,  however  super- 
stitious that  best  thought  may  itself  still  be.  But 
Lao-tsze's  system  had  in  it  the  germs  of  this 
development.      The  Tao  Teh  King  begins: — 

The  Tao  that  can  be  trodden  is  not  the  enduring  and 
unchanging  Tao.  The  name  that  can  be  named  is  not 
the  enduring  and  unchanging  name.  As  having  no 
name  it  is  the  originator  of  lieaven  and  earth ;  as  having 
a  name,  it  is  the  mother  of  all  things.  .  .  .  Under  these 
two  aspects  it  is  really  the  same;  but  as  development 
takes  place,  it  receives  different  names.  Together  we 
call  them  the  Mystery.  Where  the  mystery  is  the 
deepest  is  the  gate  of  all  that  is  subtle  and  wonderful. 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM  161 

It  was  here  that  Taoism  stood  out  in  strongest 
contrast  with  Confucianism.  Confucianism  knew 
nothing  of  myster}^  Lao-tsze  had  a  deeper  and 
more  courageous  insight.  He  knew  that  where 
our  commonplace  explanations  end,  there  is  the 
gateway  of  new  and  widening  truth.  ''In  the 
recognition  of  this  lesson,"  says  Dr.  Gibson, 
"lies  at  once  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of 
Taoism.  In  its  strength  it  has  given  us  the 
Taoist  metaphysic,  which  for  freshness,  depth, 
and  thorough-going  idealism,  has  no  Confucian 
rival ;  in  its  weakness  it  has  produced  the  imbecile 
vagaries  of  Taoist  alchemy,  geomancy,  and  gen- 
eral hocus-pocus."  (Gibson,  "Mission  Problems 
and  Mission  Methods,"  p.  94.) 

Into  this  network  of  gods  and  immortal  sages, 
of  city  gods  and  star  gods;  of  a  deified  magician 
known  as  the  Jade  Emperor,  superintending 
the  world  and  an  imaginary  earthly  heaven  in  the 
Kun  Lun  Mountains;  of  elixir  of  life  and  charms 
and  exorcisms;  of  its  pitiful  Pope;  of  literalistic 
hells,  pictured  in  the  most  lurid  detail  in  the 
temples;  of  merit  accounts  in  which  acts  are 
appraised  v/ith  exactest  precision,  and  salvation 
is  mathematically  calculated, — into  all  this,  so 
terrible  in  its  weight  upon  a  nation's  life,  and 
yet  so  destitute  of  ideas  and  of  spiritual  meaning, 
we  need  not  enter.  It  is  fully  described  in  the 
books  on  China,  and  on  the  religious  practices 
of  the  Chinese  people.  It  is  enough  for  us  to 
note  that  there  is  the  same  need   for  true  religion 


162       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE   WORLD 

to  lighten  the  mind  of  China  and  to  satisfy  its 
soul  that  there  is  among  all  the  animistic  peoples. 
The  sects  which  have  grownup  in  China,  com- 
pounded of  Buddhist  and  Taoist  elements,  illus- 
trate the  religious  discontent  of  the  earnest 
minded  among  the  people.  Some  of  these  vege- 
tarian organizations  represent  a  real,  religious 
longing,  and  have  prepared  multitudes  to  receive 
a  purer  faith  when  it  has  come.  In  his  account 
of  "Blind  Chang,  the  Manchurian  Martyr,"  the 
Rev.  James  W.  Inglis  refers  to  a  typical  instance 
of  these  sects  and  their  relationship  to  Chris- 
tianity. Speaking  of  Chao,  a  former  convert  in 
Manchuria,  Mr.  Inglis  says: — 

For  thirty-three  years  before  his  conversion,  Chao  had 
been  a  prominent  member  of  a  vegetarian  sect — the 
Hun  Yuen — with  which  Chang  had  also  some  con- 
nection; and  as  most  of  the  early  converts  in  that 
district  had  a  similar  history,  it  is  necessary  to  give 
some  account  of  this  society. 

This  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded  three  hundred 
years  ago,  in  the  same  reign  in  which  the  early  Jesuits 
entered  China.  Its  teaching  is  a  mixture  of  Buddhism 
with  the  native  religion,  called  Taoism.  The  disciples 
of  the  sect  are  initiated  with  secret  rites,  and  are 
taught  a  formula  which  must  not  be  uttered,  or  the 
heavens  will  fall ;  it  is  as  follows  : — 

"On  Kun  Lun  Mountain,  Amida  Buddha, 
Merciful  Lord  Buddha,  come  to  the  joyous  city; 
O  Buddha,  sit  on  the  spiritual  mountain." 

The  society  is  independent  of  the  temples  and  the 
priesthood  ;  it  consists  of  laymen,  who  pay  a  salary  to 
their  leaders,  and  even  send  agents  to  a  distance  to  win 
new  disciples.     They  meet   in   halls  attached   to  private 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM  163 

houses,  which  are  sometimes  without  any  idols,  but  the 
common  custom  is  to  wear,  suspended  from  the  neck, 
iittic  bronze  images  of  Buddha.  They  belong  both  to 
the  middle  class  and  to  the  humbler  ranks  of  the  people, 
and,  as  a  rule,  they  are  sincere  and  earnest  men,  seekers 
after  truth,  the  moral  elite  of  the  nation.  Their  great 
aim,  they  declare,  is  ''The  Reform  of  the  Character," 
to  which  end  they  adopt  two  methods — a  vegetarian 
diet,  and  the  reading  of  the  books  of  the  society. 
These  books  are  all  in  manuscript,  and  generally  in 
metre.  I  have  seen  a  set  of  ten  volumes,  written  with 
characters  half  an  inch  long,  the  decorated  border  alona 
costing  a  pound  of  our  money. 

A  convert  once  gave  me,  after  his  baptism,  a  book 
of  prayers,  addressed  to  the  Goddess  of  Mercy.  The 
first  page  read  thus:  ''O  merciful  Goddess,  that  lookest 
on  the  earth,  forgive  me  all  my  sins,  both  those  com- 
mitted before  entering  the  society,  and  those  committed 
since."  Was  this  but  a  cry  in  the  dark,  wrung  from 
some  burdened  heart  in  its  dire  need,  or  was  it  an  echo 
of  the  prayer  of  the  publican  in  the  temple,  that  had 
floated  by  unknown  ways  over  the  spaces  of  Central 
Asia? 

They  that  seek  shall  find;  ^nd  many  of  those  who 
have  found  rest  in  the  Christian  Church  have  admitted 
that  the  ''secret  sects"  had  prepared  the  way  for  the 
coming  of  God's  Kingdom.  They  had  sought  for  the 
light,  though  by  tortuous  paths,  and  there  are  no  better 
servants  of  the  Cross  to-day  than  those  who  formerly 
had  been  sincere  in  their  idolatry. 

It    is  sufficiently  clear  that  pure  Confucianism   Defects  of 
has   not   satisfied  the   needs   of   China.      China's   Confucianisit 
titanic    struggle    to-day    is    to   escape    from   the 
political   and   intellectual   enslavement  of  Confu- 
cianism.     The  rise  of   popular   Taoism    and   the 
introduction  of  Buddhism  show  how   inadequate 


164      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Confucianism  was  to  meet  the  religious  needs  of 
the  empire.  Confucianism  is  simply  incompe- 
tent to  meet  such  needs.  It  is  a  denial  of  their 
importance.  (See  Okuma,  "Fifty  Years  of  New 
Japan."  Chapter  on  Confucianism  by  Professor 
Inouye,  Vol.  II,  pp.  42,  64.)  Its  inadequacy 
and  its  positive  errors  and  defects  are  summarized 
by  Dr.  Faber: — 

1.  Confucianism  recognizes  no  relation  to  a  living 
God. 

T'  2.  There  is  no  distinction  made  between  the  human 
soul  and  the  body,  nor  is  there  any  clear  definition  of 
man,  either  from  a  physical  or  from  a  psychological 
point  of  view. 

3.  There  is  no  explanation  given  why  it  is  that  some 
men  are  born  as  saints  and  others  as  ordinary  mortals. 

4.  All  men  are  said  to  possess  the  disposition  and 
strength  necessary  for  the  attainment  of  moral  perfec- 
tion, but  the  contrast  with  the  actual  state  remains  un- 
explained. 

5.  There  is  wanting  in  Confucianism  a  decided  and 
serious  tone  in  its  treatment  of  the  doctrine  of  sin,  for 
with  the  exception  of  moral  retribution  in  social  life  it 
mentions  no  punishment  for  sin. 

6.  Confucianism  is  generally  devoid  of  a  deeper 
insight  into  sin  and  evil. 

7.  Confucianism  finds  it,  therefore,  impossible  to 
explain  death. 

8.  Confucianism  knows  no  mediator,  none  that  could 
restore  original  nature  in  accordance  with  the  ideal 
which  man  finds  in  himself. 

9.  Prayer  and  its  ethical  power  finds  no  place  in  the 
system  of  Confucius. 

10.  Though  confidence  is  indeed  freqviently  insisted 
upon,  its  presupposition,  viz.,  truthfulness  in  speaking, 
is  never  practically  urged,  but  rather  the  reverse. 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM  165 

11.  Polygamy  is  presupposed  and  tolerated. 

12.  Pantheism  is  sanctioned. 

13.  Fortune  telling,  choosing  of  days,  omens,  dreams 
and  other  illusions  (phcEnixes,  etc.)  are  believed  in. 

/    14.   Ethics  are  contounded    with  external    ceremonies 
and  a  precise  despotic  political  form. 

15.  The  position  which  Confucius  assumed  towards 
ancient  institutions  is  a  capricious  one. 

16.  The  assertion  that  certain  musical  melodies  in- 
fluence the  morals  of  the  people  is  ridiculous. 

-^  17.  The    influence    of   mere   good    example    is    exag- 
gerated, and  Confucius  proves  it  least  of  all. 

18.  In  Confucianism  the  system  of  social  life  is 
tyranny.  Women  are  slaves.  Children  have  no  rights 
in  relation  to  their  parents,  whilst  subjects  are  placed 
in  the  position  of  children  with  regard  to  their  supe- 
riors. 
-"'  19.  Filial  piety  is  exaggerated  into  deification  of 
parents. 

20.  The  net  result  of  Confucius'  system,  as  drawn 
by  himself,  is  the  worship  of  genius  ;  /'.  e.y  deification  of 
man. 

21.  There  is,  with  the  exception  of  ancestral  worship, 
which  is  devoid  of  any  true  ethical  value,  no  clear  con- 
ception of  the  dogma  of  immortality. 

22.  All  rewards  are  expected  in  this  world,  so  that 
egotism  is  unconsciously  fostered,  and  if  not  avarice, 
at  least  ambition. 

23.  The  whole  system  of  Confucianism  offers  no 
comfort  to  ordinary  mortals,  either  in  life  or  in  death. 

24.  The  history  of  China  shows  that  Confucianism 
is  incapable  of  effecting  for  the  people  a  new  birth  to 
a  higher  life  and  nobler  efforts,  and  Confucianism  is 
now  in  practical  life  quite  alloyed  with  Shamanistic  and 
Buddhistic  ideas  and  practices.  (Faber,  ''Systematical 
Digest  of  the  Doctrines  of  Confucius^"  pp.  124-127.) 


166      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 


In  contrast  with  Christianity  several  of  these 
points  need  additional  emphasis.  Chinese  reli- 
gion lacks  the  ideal  of  unselfishness.  The 
Chinese  begin  to  realize  their  need  of  a  religion 
which  contains  this  ideal,  and  gives  power  for  its 
realization.      Mr.  Cornaby  of  Shanghai  writes: — 

Some    influential    non-Christian    Chinese   newspapers 
have  lately  declared,  in  a  series  of  leading  articles,  that 
China  has  a  number  of  ceremonial    observances  but  not 
religion,  and  that  she  must  get  a  religion  somewhere   if 
she  is  to  prosper.     One  article  has  the  following  words : 
*'If  we  read   history,  we  find  that   the   decadence  of  the 
great  nations  of  the  past  began  with    their  religions  and 
the  acceptance    of    low    ideals.     China's    lack    of    civic 
righteousness  (official  peculation  and  the  like)  is  essen- 
tially   a    religious    lack.     No    nation    can    afford    to    doll 
without  a  religion;  and  to  be  strong,  a  nation  must  haveii 
;a  religion  which  demands  the  greatest  amount  of  unsel-'l 
fishness. "      (Report  of  Commission  IV,  World  Mission- 
ary Conference,  Ch.  III.) 

Chinese  religion  lacks  also  the  fullness  and 
strength  of  the  Christian  morality,  and  yet  morals 
is  the  chief  glory  of  Confucianism.  But  with 
inadequate  conceptions  both  of  God  and  of  man  it 
cannot  have  the  rich,  forceful,  ethical  sense  of 
Christianity.  "In  Confucianism,"  writes  Mr. 
Arnold  Foster,  "there  is  no  doctrine  of  a  divine 
love,  nor  any  thought  of  a  God  who  is  love. 
There  is  a  lack  of  sympathy  with  the  poor,  the 
outcast  and  the  erring.  There  is  no  doctrine  of 
faith  as  an  objective  movement  of  the  soul;  no 
realization  of  the  weakness  of  man's  will  and  of 
moral  bias  5  no  expectation  of   high   moral    char- 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM          167 

acter  in  ordinary  men;  and  learning,  not  conver- 
sion, is  the  road  to  virtue.  Sins  of  the  heart,  too, 
such  as  pride,  are  lightly  regarded.  In  all  these, 
and  in  many  other  directions,  there  must  be  a 
reaction  in  favor  of  Christianity."  (Report  of 
Commission  IV,  World  Missionary  Conference, 
Ch.  III.) 

Confucianism  knew  the  Golden  Rule  in  a  neg-  The  Golde 
ative  and  passive  form,  quite  different  from  the  Rule, 
positive  and  active  form  in  which  Christianity 
knows  it.  ''What  you  do  not  like  when  done  to 
yourself,  do  not  do  to  others,"  said  Confucius. 
And  this  negative  form  allowed  the  doctrine  of 
retaliation.  "What  do  you  say,"  asked  a  dis- 
ciple, "concerning  the  principle  that  injury 
should  be  recompensed  with  kindness.^"  The 
master  said,  "With  what  then  will  you  recom- 
pense kindness  ?  Recompense  injury  with  justice, 
and  recompense  kindness  with  kindness." 
"There  is  no  spirit  of  forgiveness  here,"  says 
Professor  Douglas;  "it  is  the  stern  law  of  an  eye 
for  an  eye  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth.  Of  the  man 
who  returns  good  for  evil  he  speaks  with  con- 
tempt, as  a  cowardly  creature  who  is  'careful  of 
his  person.'  Far  from  checking  the  spirit  of 
revenge,  he  inculcates  it  as  a  duty  under  certain 
circumstances."  "What  course  is  to  be  pur- 
sued," asked  Tsze-hea,  "in  the  case  of  the  mur- 
der of  a  father  or  a  mother?"  "The  son,"  said 
the  Sage,  "must  sleep  upon  a  mattress  of  grass, 
with  his  shield  for  his  pillow;  he  must  decline  to 


168       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

take  office ;  he  must  not  live  under  the  same 
heaven  with  his  slayer.  When  he  meets  him  in 
the  market  place,  or  the  court,  he  must  have  his 
weapon  ready  to  strike  him."  (Douglas,  "Con- 
fucianism and  Taoism,"  p.  144  f. ) 
Woman.  And  just  as  in  the  case  of  every  non-Christian 

religion,  Confucianism   breaks   down  in    its  atti- 
tude    toward     woman.      The     teaching     of     the 
Classics  is  that  women  are  as   different    in  nature 
from  man  as  earth  is   from   heaven,  that  they  are 
separate  not  only  in  bodily   form,  but  in  the  very 
essence     of     nature ;     that      though     women    are 
regarded   as   human  beings,    they  are  of  a   lower 
state     than    men    and     can    never    attain   to    full 
equality   with   men;  that  women  are   to   be   kept 
under  the  power  of  men  and  not  allowed  any  will 
of  their  own;  that   women  cannot  have  any  hap- 
piness of  their  own, — they  have  to  live  and  work 
for  men;  that   only   as   the  mother   of   a  son,  and 
especially  of  the  continuator  of  the  direct  line  of 
a  family,  can  a  woman  escape  from  her  degrada- 
tion and  become   to  a   degree   equal  to   her   hus- 
band, but    then    only    in    household    affairs,     es- 
pecially  of  the    female    department    and   in  the 
ancestral  hall,  and  that  woman    is   bound   to   the 
same  laws  of  existence  even   in  the  other  world. 
She  belongs  to  the  same  husband  and   is   depend- 
ent  for   her   happiness    on   the   sacrifices   offered 
by   her   descendants.      (Faber,    "The    Status    of 
Women    in    China,"  p.    12.)     Seven    causes    of 
divorce  are  recognized, — barrenness^    lascivious- 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  169 

ness,  jealousy,  talkativeness,  thievery,  disobedi- 
ence to  her  husband's  parents,  or  leprosy;  but  a 
woman  cannot  be  put  away  whose  parents  are  not 
living  to  receive  her  back  again.  Parties  can 
separate  on  mutual  disagreement,  but  the  code 
does  not  regulate  the  alimony;  and  a  husband  is 
liable  to  punishment  if  he  retain  a  wife  convicted 
of  adultery.  If  a  wife  merely  elopes  she  can  be 
sold  by  her  husband,  but  if  she  marry  while 
absent  she  is  to  be  strangled.  If  the  husband  be 
absent  three  years  a  woman  must  state  her  case  to 
the  magistrates  before  presuming  to  remarry. 
(Williams,  ''The  Middle  Kingdom,"  Vol.  I,  p. 
794.)  Marriage  is  highly  respected  in  China, 
and  the  career  of  the  late  Dowager  Empress  shows 
what  influence  women  can  exert,  but  it  is  true 
that  ''Confucius  has  nothing  to  say  of  the  duties 
of  husband  and  wife,  and  the  later  writers  supply 
the  deficiency  only  in  part."  (Knox,  "The  De- 
velopment of  Religion  in  Japan,"  p.  158.) 

At  every  point  where   Confucianism   is   weak  Inferiority 
Christianity  is  strong,  and    it   has    already  shown   of  Confucian- 
by  the  service  it   has  rendered  China  what   it  can   ""^  *°  Chns- 
do  which  Confucianism  has  failed  to  do.      As  Sir     ^^"'  ^' 
Alexander  Simpson,  Prof.    Alexander  Macalister 
and    Mr.    Francis    William    Fox  said    in  a  report 
which    they  made   to   the    China  Missions  Emer- 
gency Committee  in  Great  Britain  in  1907: — 

Whilst  the  ancient  ethics  of  China,  which  were  at  a 
later  date  collected  and  compiled  bv  Confucius,  have 
undoubtedly  exercised    for  centuries   a  most    beneficent 


170      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

and  potent  influence  on  the  lives  of  Chinese  and  the 
Chinese  nation  ;  jet  these  ethics  have  altogether  lacked 
that  dynamic  power  to  mold  their  character  and  uplift 
effectually  their  ideas  and  surroundings,  which  Chris- 
tianity alone  of  all  religious  beliefs  of  the  world  seems 
able  to  accomplish.  Christianity  has  brought  to  the 
Chinese  the  knowledge  of  a  supreme  God  of  the  Uni- 
verse, who  is  the  Heavenly  Father  of  all  men;  of  a 
Redeemer  and  Saviour;  of  sin  and  sinfulness;  it  has 
taught  them  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  earth — men, 
women,  and  children — are  alike  equal  in  the  sight  of 
God,  and  are  members  of  one  world-wide  brotherhood ; 
that  they  have  souls  needing  salvation,  and  that  the 
position  of  women  must  be  placed  on  the  same  basis  as 
that  of  men.  It  has  further  revealed  to  them  the  joys 
and  blessings  and  the  sweetness  of  the  Christian's  home, 
and  the  power  to  live  purer  and  truer  lives  ;  it  has  in- 
troduced into  China  a  weekly  day  of  rest,  an  institution 
previously  unknown ;  it  has  developed  in  a  marvelous 
way  education  and  the  i^ress  ;  it  has  advocated  the  un- 
binding of  the  crippled  feet  of  its  women,  and  is  thus 
likely  to  bring  about  the  early  emancipation  from  ter- 
rible sufferings  and  disabilities  of  nearly  one-half  the 
enormous  population  of  that  vast  empire;  it  has  intro- 
duced new  medical  methods  and  skill,  which  already 
are  lessening  the  untold  bodily  sufferings  of  its  people; 
it  has  established  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  and  in- 
stitutions for  the  blind,  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  lepers. 
Its  representatives  have  denounced  the  improper  use  of 
opium,  as  well  as  the  existing  opium  trade,  and  have 
assisted  the  Chinese  in  their  efforts  to  escape  from  the 
thraldom  of  the  opium  habit.  Such  are  some  of  the 
great  and  many  blessings  which  Christianity  has  already 
conferred  upon  China  and  its  people. 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  171 

Each    need    of   Confucianism    is     in   reality    a   Points  of 
point  of  contact  with   Christianity,  but  there  are   Contact  be 
also  great  Confucian  principles  which  are    in  ac 


tween  Con- 
fucianism and 


cord   with    Christian    teaching-.      Dr.    Faber   has    _,    .    .     . 

^  Cihnstianity 

summarized  these  as  follows: — 

1.   Divine    Providence  over   human  affairs  and    visita- 
tion of  human  sin  are  acknowledged. 

2.  An  invisible  world  above  and  around  this  material 
life  is  firmly  believed  in. 

3.  Moral  law  is  positively  set  forth  as  binding 
equally  on  men  and   spirits. 

y^  4.  Prayer  is  offered  in  public  calamities  as  well  as 
for  private  needs,  in  the  belief  that  it  is  heard  and  an- 
swered by  spiritual    powers. 

5.  Sacrifices  are  regai-ded  as  necessary  to  come  into 
closer  contact  with  the  spiritual  world. 

6.  Miracles  are  believed  in  as  the  natural  efficacy  of 
spirits. 

7.  Moral  duty  is  taught,  and  its  obligation  in  the  five 
human  relations. 

8.  Cultivation  of  the  moral  character  is  regarded  as 
the  basis  for  the  successful  carrying  out  of  the  social 
duties. 

9.  Virtue  is  valued  above  riches  and  honor. 

10.  In  case  of  failure  in  political  and  social  life, 
moral  self-culture  and  practice  of  humanity  are  to  be 
attended  to  even  more  carefully  than  before. 

11.  Sincerity  and  truth  are  shown  to  be  the  only  basis 
for  self  culture  and  the  reform  of  the  world. 

12.  The  Golden  Rule  is  proclaimed  as  the  principle 
of  moral  conduct  among  our  fellow  men. 

13.  Every  ruler  should  carry  out  a  benevolent  gov- 
ernment for  the  benefit  of  the  people.  (Faber,  "China 
in  the  Light  of  History,"  pp.  57-59.) 


\ 


172       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

The  two  great  features  of  Chinese  life  are  filial 
piety  and  ethical  propriety.  Both  of  these  fur- 
nish points  of  close  contact  with  Christianity. 
Chang  Chih  Tung,  the  great  Chinese  viceroy  in 
his  book,  bearing  in  its  English  translation  the 
title  ^'China's  Only  Hope,"  recognized  the 
common  ground  in  filial  piety,  though  his  knowl- 
edge of  our  Western  view  was  not  exact.  "In 
the  Mosaic  Decalogue,"  he  says,  "the  duty  of 
honoring  one's  parents  is  placed  next  to  that  of 
worshiping  Heaven,  and  foreigners  also  put  on 
mourning  for  deceased  parents  and  wear  black 
bands  as  the  badge.  Although  they  have  no 
such  things  as  ancestral  halls,  and  tablets  of 
deceased  relatives,  in  lieu  of  these  they  place  the 
photographs  of  their  dead  parents  and  brothers 
on  the  tables  in  their  houses  and  make  offerings 
to  them.  And  while  they  make  no  sacrifices  at 
the  tombs  of  their  ancestors,  they  repair  their 
graves  and  plant  flowers  upon  them  as  an  act  of 
worship.  It  will  be  seen,  then,  that  Western 
people  also  hold,  in  common  with  us,  the  relation 
of  Father  and  Son."  ("China's  Only  Hope,"  p. 
45  f.) 

And  in  the  strong  moral  sense  of  Confucianism 
and  Christianity  there  is  a  common  meeting 
ground.  Chinese  religion  has  never  sheltered 
what  was  immoral.  It  is  a  "remarkable  trait  of 
Chinese  idolatry,"  as  S.  Wells  Williams  pointed 
out,  "that  there  is  no  deification  of  sensuality, 
which,  in  the  name  of  religion,  could  shield  and 


ANIMISM,   CONFUCIANISM  173 

countenance  those  licentious  rites  and  orgies  that 
enervated  the  minds  of  worshipers  and  polluted 
their  hearts  in  so  many  other  pagan  countries. 
No  Aphrodite  or  Lakshmi  occurs  in  the  list  of 
Chinese  goddesses;  no  weeping  for  Thammuz; 
no  exposure  in  the  temple  of  Mylitta  or  obscene 
rites  of  the  Durga-puja,  have  ever  been  required 
or  sanctioned  by  Chinese  priests;  no  nautch  girls 
as  in  Indian  temples,  or  courtesans  as  at  Corinth, 
are  kept  in  their  sacred  buildings.  Their  specu- 
lations upon  the  dual  powers  of  the  yin  and  yang 
have  never  degenerated  into  the  vile  worship  of 
the  linga  and  yoni  of  the  Hindus,  or  of  Amun- 
kem,  as  pictured  on  the  ruins  of  Thebes. 
Although  they  are  a  licentious  people  in  word 
and  deed,  the  Chinese  have  not  endeavored  to 
lead  the  votaries  of  pleasure,  falsely  so  called, 
further  down  the  road  of  ruin,  by  making  its  path 
lie  through  a  temple  and  trying  to  sanctify  its 
acts  by  putting  them  under  the  protection  of  a 
goddess.  Nor  does  their  mythology  teem  with 
disgusting  relations  of  the  amours  of  their  deities; 
on  the  contrary,  like  the  Romanists,  they  exalt 
and  deify  chastity  and  seclusion  as  a  means  of 
bringing  the  soul  and  body  nearer  to  the  highest 
excellence.  Vice  is,  in  a  great  degree,  kept  out 
of  sight,  as  well  as  out  of  religion."  (Williams, 
''The  Middle  Kingdom,"  Vol.  II,  p.  192  f.) 

That  vice  has  been  kept  out  of  the  religion  is 
not  evidence  that  virtue  is  in  the  life,  but  the  fact 
arrays  religion  on  the  side  of  morality  and   opens 


174      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

the  mind  of  China  to  a  faith  which  jDi'esents  a 
loftier  and  richer  moral  ideal  and  at  the  same 
time  offers  the  spiritual  dynamic  which  is 
required  to  embody  the  ideal  in  life. 

The  Confucian  scheme  called  for  the  superior 
man  and  on  the  superior  man  built  the  righteous 
and  peaceful  state.  Christianity  alone  presents  to 
Confucianism  the  perfect  ideal  of  the  superior 
man.  Christianity  alone  can  produce  the  man. 
Christianity  alone  can  fulfill  the  Confucianist 
dream  of  the  orderly  government  by  gathering 
**A11  under  Heaven"  into  the  Kinofdom  of  God. 

BIBLE  READINGS 

Third  chanter  of  Hebrews. 


QUESTIONS 

Are  the  Chinese  a  religious  or  an  irreligious  people? 

What  was  China's  primitive  religion? 

What  is  Animism?  What  is  the  message  of  Chris- 
tianity to  the  Animistic  peoples? 

Narrate  the  life  of  Confucius. 

What  was  the  character  of  Confucius?     His  influence? 

Was  Confucius  a  believer  in   God  or  an  agnostic? 

Should  Christianity  recognize  ancestor  worship? 

Give  illustrations  of  the  teachings  of  the  Confucian 
Classics. 

Who  was  Mencius?  What  was  his  character?  His 
doctrine? 

Describe  the  origins  of  Taoism.  The  character  of 
its  founder. 

What  is  Taoism  to-day? 


Korea — Interior  and  Exterior  of  Devil  House 


ANIMISM,  CONFUCIANISM         176 

What  are  the  defects  of  Confucianism? 
What   are    the  contrasts    between    Confucianism    ana 
Christianity? 

What  are  the  points  of  contact? 

SELECTED  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Nassau,  ''Fetichism  in  West  Africa,"  Scribner,  1904. 

Warneck,  ''The  Living  Christ  and  Dying  Heathen- 
ism," Revell,  1909. 

De  Groot,  ''The  Religion  of  the  Chinese,"  Mac- 
millan,  1910. 

Ross,  "Original  Religion  of  China,"  Revell,  1909. 

Douglas,  "Confucianism  and  Taoism,"  Gorham, 
1889. 

Legge,  "The  Religions  of  China,"  Scribner,  1881. 

Legge,  "Life  and  Teachings  of  Confucius,"  Paul, 
Kegan,  Trench  &  Trubner,  1887. 

Legge,  "Life  and  Teachings  of  Mencius, "  Paul, 
Kegan,  Trench  &  Trubner,  1875. 

Du  Bose,  "Dragon,  Image  and  Demon,"  Presby- 
terian Committee  of  Publication,  1899. 

Nevius,  "China  and  the  Chinese,"  Presbyterian 
Board  of  Publication,  1882. 

Parker,  "China  and  Religion,"  Dutton,  1905. 


CHAPTER   IV 
MOHAMMEDANISM 


CHAPTER  IV 


MOHAMMEDANISM 


World 
Religion. 


Mohammedanism  is  the  only  one  of  the  great  The 
religions  of  the  world  which  is  younger  than  Youngest 
Christianity.  The  development  of  Hinduism 
began  four  thousand  years  ago.  Buddhism  and 
Confucianism  originated  six  centuries  before 
Christ.  Mohammed  came  six  centuries  after- 
wards. His  religion  accordingly  claims  to 
supersede  Christianity,  just  as  Christianity 
claims  to  supersede  all  that  came  before  it.  And 
Mohammedanism  makes  this  claim  explicitly. 
Christianity  knew  nothing  of  Hinduism  and 
Buddhism  and  Confucianism  when  it  set  forth  its 
universal  character.  It  claimed  the  devotion  of 
all  men,  not  on  the  ground  of  a  specific  super- 
session of  each  religion  held  by  men,  but  on  the 
ground  of  its  own  universal  and  sufficient  prin- 
ciple. But  Mohammedanism  came  as  the  spe- 
cific and  declared  supersession  of  Christianity. 
In  presenting  Christianity  to  Mohammedans, 
accordingly,  we  are  presenting  that  which  is 
already  known,  or  is  supposed  to  be  known,  and 
which  is  already  judged  and  superseded.  This 
fact  makes  the  missionary  problem  among 
Mohammedans  unique. 


Mokammed. 


180       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

Diverse  It    also    accounts    for    the     diverse    judgments 

Judgments  of  which  have  been  entertained  of  Mohammed  and 
Mohammedanism.  It  w^as  not  imnatural  that  the 
Christian  view  of  both  the  Arabian  teacher  and 
his  religion  should  be  unfavorable  and  even  bitter. 
Dante  placed  him  in  his  ninth  circle  in  the 
^ ^Inferno,  "  among  the  sowers  of  religious  discord. 
Genebrard,  a  famous  Roman  Catholic  controver- 
sialist, says  of  him  and  his  Arabic  Koran,  "Mo- 
hammed was  a  beast,  and  only  knew  a  language 
that  was  suited  to  his  bestial  condition."  Alex- 
ander Ross,  in  translating  a  French  version  of  the 
Koran  into  English,  with  some  other  rough 
speech,  calls  him  "the  great  Arabian  impostor." 
This  vs^as  the  view  of  Dean  Prideaux  also,  and 
of  Charles  Wesley  in  his  hymn: — 
''The  smoke  of  the  infernal  cave 

Which  half  the  Christian  world  o'erspread, 
Disperse,  Thou  Heavenlj  Light,  and  save 

The  souls  by  that  impostor  led — 
That  Arab  thief,  as  Satan  bold, 
Who  quite  destroyed  Thine  Asian  fold." 
(Bosworth  Smith,  "Mohammed  and  Mohammed- 
anism," pp.  66-71.)      And  even  Sale  in  his  "Pre- 
liminary  Discourse"    to     the   translation    of    the 
Koran,     while     recognizing     that     Mohammed's 
"original  design  of  bringing  the  pagan   Arabs  to 
the    knowledge    of    the    true    God   v^^as    certainly 
noble,     and     highly     to     be     commended,"    still 
declares,  "It   is   scarce   to    be    doubted    but    that 
Mohammed  had  a  violent  desire  of  being  reckoned 
an   extraordinary   person,   which    he  could   attain 


MOHAMMEDANISM  181 

to  by  no  means  more  effectually  than  by  pretend- 
ing- to  be  a  messenger  sent  from  God,  to  inform 
mankind  of  His  will."  (Sale,  "Preliminary 
Discourse,"  p.  30  f. ) 

These  severe  judgments  are  much  modified  in 
our  day,  however.  The  weakness  and  evil  of 
Mohammedanism  is  more  clearly  seen  than  ever 
before;  but  a  comparative  estimate  of  Moham- 
med's character  and  work  in  the  light  of  his  own 
times,  and  a  comparative  judgment  of  his  religion 
in  view  of  the  civilization  from  which  it  sprang 
and  of  the  effects  which  it  produced  and  of  the 
type  of  Christianity  which  alone  it  touched, 
while  deepening  our  conviction  of  the  inadequacy 
and  the  positive  iniquity  of  Mohammedanism, 
have  enabled  us  also  to  appreciate  both  its  real 
influence  and  the  problem  which  its  success 
presents.  ''There  must  be  more  said  about  him 
still,"  F.  D.  Maurice  wrote  of  Mohammed's 
influence  to  Charles  Kingsley.  ''The  middle 
ages  turn  more  upon  him,  and  were  more  saved 
from  perdition  through  him,  than  I  had  at  all 
imagined  till  I  came  to  think  more  of  them. 
There  would  have  been  no  belief  in  Christ,  if 
there  had  not  been  that  broad,  fierce  assertion  of 
an  absolute  God, — let  Newman  say  what  he 
likes.  .  .  .  What  he  calls  the  Anti-Christ  was 
the  divine  means  of  saving  the  Catholic  Church 
from  atheism."  ("Life  of  F.  D.  Maurice," 
Vol.  II,  p.  239.)  And  the  problem  which  Mo- 
hammedanism presents  is  expressed   in  the  words 


182      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


MoKammed'a 
Place  in 
Mohammecl- 
anisin. 


of  a  Moslem,  quoted  in  Browne's,  ''A  Year 
Among  the  Persians"  (p.  305):  ''When  a  man 
arises  amongst  a  people,  untaught  and  tmsup- 
ported,  yet  speaking  a  word  which  causes  empires 
to  change,  hierarchies  to  fall,  and  thousands  to 
die  willingly  in  obedience  to  it,  that  is  a  proof 
absolute  and  positive  that  the  word  spoken  is  from 
God.  This  is  the  proof  to  which  we  point  in 
support  of  our  religion." 

The  central  fact  and  problem  of  Mohammed- 
anism is  Mohammed  himself.  His  religion  is 
related  to  him,  and  he  to  it,  in  a  sense  which  is 
true  of  no  other  religion  except  Christianity. 
Hinduism  neither  originated  with  a  man,  nor  is 
it  identified  with  any  one  personality.  Buddhism 
came  from  one  historic  individual  but,  in  his 
own  view,  the  faith  which  Gautama  taught  was 
a  way  independent  of  him,  and  he  was  neither 
God  nor  a  representative  of  God.  Confucius 
was  merely  the  teacher  of  truths,  not  the  founder 
of  a  religion,  nor  the  leader  of  a  political  order. 
He  was  a  moral  and  political  philosopher,  and 
not  a  prophei.  But  Mohammed's  faith  embraced 
"^  two  articles  which  were   inseparable:   "There    is 

no  god  but  God,  and   Mohammed   is  the  prophet 

of  God."  Historically  the  religion  sprang  from 
Mohammed,  and  its  creed  coupled  Mohammed's 
name  indissolubly  to  God's.  As  Al-Ghazali,  a 
distinguished  Moslem  theologian,  writes,  "Neither 
is  the  faith  according  to  His  will  complete  by 
the    testimony   to   the   Unity   alone, — that   is,   by 


MOHAMMEDANISM  183 

simply  saying,  'There  is  but  one  God,' — without 
the  addition  of  the  further  testimony  to  the 
Apostle, — that  is,  the  statement,  'Mohammed  is 
the  apostle  of  God.'"  (Sell,  "The  Faith  of 
Islam,"  p.  11.)  And  to  the  personality  of  the 
prophet  we  are  driven  to  understand  alike  the 
origin  and  the  nature  of  the  faith.  "If  I  might 
for  a  moment  separate  those  elements  that  in 
reality  never  appear  excejDt  in  combination,  I 
should  say,"  writes  Kuenen,  "Islam  is  in  a  high 
degree,  and  far  more  than  most  other  religions, 
the  product  not  of  the  time  or  of  the  peoj^le,  but 
of  the  jDcrsonality  of  its  founder."  (Hibbert 
Lectures,  p.  23.)  And  ever  since  its  acceptance 
by  the  Arabian  people,  the  religion  of  Moham- 
medanism has  centered  in  Mohammed.  His 
example  and  his  teaching  and  his  spirit  have 
been  the  ideals  of  Islam.  Mohammed  has  not.-- 
been,  as  Christ  was,  the  revelation  of  God;  but 
his  word  about  God  has  been  the  authoritative 
word,  and  his  life  and  character  have  been  the  _ 
standard  of  what  God  accepts  in  man. 

Mohammed  w^as  born  in  Mecca  on  August  27th,  Life  of 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord  570.  At  the  time  of  his  MoKammed. 
birth  the  government  of  Mecca  was  vested  in  a 
decemvirate,  of  which  his  grandfather  was  chief. 
The  boy's  father  died  before  his  birth,  and  his 
mother  when  he  was  six  years  old.  His  grand- 
father cared  for  him,  however,  and  showed  great 
tenderness  toward  the  child.  When  he  was 
nine,  upon  his  grandfather's  death,  he  passed  into 


184      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

the  care  of  his  uncle.  Fond  of  solitude,  he  spent 
many  hours  in  the  mighty  lonesomeness  of  the 
desert.  And  in  the  deserts  all  the  great  mono- 
theistic faiths  have  been  born.  He  studied  the 
signs  of  God  about  him.  His  later  teachings 
show  how  deep  ujDon  his  imagination  the  rolling 
thunders  of  the  Meccan  hills  and  the  forked 
lightnings  of  the  desert  skies  had  pressed  the 
sense  of  the  great,  strong  God.  The  life  of  the 
people  was  to  him  as  an  open  book,  and  he  knew 
all  their  homely  ways;  but  education  in  the  con- 
ventional sense  he  had  none.  The  "Unlearned 
Prophet"  was  his  title.  In  early  manhood  he 
made  two  journeys  to  Syria,  and  the  degraded 
condition  of  Christianity  there  at  that  time 
offered  him  no  solution  of  the  problems  on  which 
he  brooded,  the  problem  of  his  own  unsatisfied 
soul,  and  the  problem  of  the  idolatry  and  moral 
degradation  of  his  people.  All  these  years  he 
seems  to  have  lived  a  quiet  and  upright  life.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-five  he  married  Khadijah,  a 
wealthy  widow,  fifteen  years  his  senior.  This 
marriage  gave  him  affluence  instead  of  indigence, 
and  was  in  every  way  a  hapjDy  and  helpful 
relationship.  For  fifteen  years  he  lived  on  in 
Mecca  in  the  respect  and  good  will  of  his  towns- 
folk, by  whom  he  was  called  ''The  Trusty,"  still 
meditating  on  his  deep  problems.  When  about 
the  age  of  forty  what  the  Moslems  regard  as  his 
call  came  to  him,  in  one  vision  and  then  in 
others,    in  which    Gabriel    appeared    to   him  and 


MOHAMMEDANISM  185 

spoke  to  him  the  commission  of  God.  At  first  he 
shrank  from  it,  feared  that  he  was  losing  his 
mind,  and  even  thought  of  casting  himself  down 
some  friendly  precipice  to  gain  rest  from  the 
ceaseless  anguish  of  his  soul,  but  Khadijah  be- 
lieved in  him,  the  divine  commission  grew  clear 
to  him,  and  out  from  the  long  years  of  quiet 
meditation  and  peaceful  ease,  he  passed  to  the 
turbulent  cares  of  a  prophet  of  monotheism  to  an 
idolatrous  people,  and  of  die  head  of  a  nation 
fused  into  unity  by  the  idea  of  subjugating  the  ' 
world. 

The  first  believers  in  his  teaching  and  in  his  First 
mission  as  the  prophet  of  God  were  his  wife  and  Believers. 
his  cousin  Ali,  and  a  few  of  the  ablest  and  most 
respected  men  of  Mecca,  like  Abu  Bakr,  Hamza 
and  Omar.  Persecution  soon  arose,  however, 
and  some  of  his  disciples  were  sent  off  to  Abys- 
sinia. There  one  of  the  exiled  Moslems*  gave  an 
account  of  what  the  new  faith  had  meant  to 
them:  "O  king,  we  were  plunged  in  the  depth 
of  ignorance  and  barbarism ;  we  adored  idols;  we 
lived  in  unchastity;  we  ate  dead  bodies,  and  we 
spoke  abominations;  we  disregarded  every  feeling 

*The  name  Moslem  "meant  naturally  '  traitor,'  and  when  the 
new  sect  cime  to  be  lampooned,  it  provided  the  satirists  with  a 
witticism.  Mohammed  showed  some  want  of  humor  in  adoptinsT  it, 
but  displayed  great] ingenuity  in  giving  it  an  honorable  meaning; 
whereas  it  ordinarily  signified  one  who  handed  over  his  friends  to 
their  enemies,  it  was  glorified  into  meaning  one  who  handed  over  his 
person  to  God;  and  though,  like  Christian,  it  may  conceivably  have 
been  first  invented  by  enemies  of  the  sect  whom  it  designated,  divine 
authority  was  presently  adduced  for  the  statement  that  Abraham  coined 
the  name."     (Margoliouth,  "  Mohammed,"  p.  ii6  f.) 


186      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

of  humanity  and  the  duties  of  hospitality  and 
neighborhood;  we  knew  no  law  but  that  of  the 
strong,  when  God  raised  among  us  a  man  of 
whose  birth,  truthfulness,  honesty,  and  purity  we 
were  aware ;  and  he  called  us  to  the  Unity  of 
God,  and  taught  us  not  to  associate  anything  with 
Him;  he  forbade  us  the  worship  of  idols;  and 
enjoined  us  to  speak  the  truth,  to  be  faithful  to 
our  trusts,  to  be  merciful  and  to  regard  the  rights 
of  neighbors;  he  forbade  us  to  speak  evil  of 
women,  or  to  eat  the  substance  of  orphans;  he 
ordered  us  to  fly  from  vices,  and  to  abstain  from 
evil ;  to  offer  prayers,  to  render  alms,  to  observe 
the  fast.  We  have  believed  in  him;  we  accept 
his  teachings  and  his  injunctions  to  worship  God, 
and  not  to  associate  anything  with  Him."  (Syed 
Ali,  "Islam,"  p.  39  f.)  There  is  no  reason  to 
disbelieve  that  this  was  the  first  fresh  character  of 
the  new  faith.  Mohammed  himself  remained  in 
Mecca  until,  after  seeking  in  vain  a  peaceful 
home  in  Tayef,  *a  neighboring  city  to  Mecca,  he 
fled  on  July  16,  622,  with  Abu  Bakr,  to  Medina, 
two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  north  of  Mecca,  to 
which  most  of  his  other  disciples  had  already 
gone.  This  flight  is  the  Hegira,  the  year  from 
which  the  Mohammedans  date  all  the  events  of 
their  history. 
^1      .   •  Medina   was    thenceforth    Mohammed's   home 

Mohammed's     until  his  death  in   June,  632.      During   these   ten 
Character.         years  there  came  great   changes   in  Mohammed's 
own   life    and    character  and    in   the    character  of 


MOHAMMEDANISM  187 

Islam.  So  long  as  Khadijah  lived,  Mohammed 
was  loyal  to  her  as  his  one  and  truly  beloved 
wife,  but  with  her  death  and  his  settlement  and 
increasing  success  in  Medina,  he  married  wife 
after  wife,  until  he  had  taken  eleven  full  wives, 
and  he  had  beside  a  number  of  concubines  or 
slave  girls.  No  apologies  can  gloss  over  the  sen- 
suality revealed  by  Mohammed  during  these  ten 
years.  Ayesha,  his  favorite  wife,  whom  he 
married  when  she  was  nine  years  old,  used  to 
say,  "The  Prophet  loved  three  things — women, 
scents  and  food;  he  had  his  heart's  desire  of  the 
two  first,  but  not  of  the  last."  It  is  true  that  he 
lived  among  degrading  customs,  but  his  own  life 
with  Khadijah  shows  that  there  were  also  whole- 
some and  worthy  marriage  relationships,  and 
around  him  were  many  families  undefiled  by  the 
gross  polygamy  which  henceforth  characterized 
him.  Moreover,  in  this  matter  he  violated  his 
own  teaching,  and  the  requirements  which  he 
laid  upon  others.  They,  as  we  shall  see,  were 
limited  to  four  wives,  while  he  took  eleven.  He 
justified  himself  in  this  by  issuing  chapters  of  the 
Koran  divinely  warranting  his  indulgence.  "O 
Prophet,"  are  the  words  which  he  declared  God 
had  spoken  to  him,  "we  have  allowed  thee  thy 
wives  whom  thou  hast  dowered,  and  the  slaves 
whom  thy  right  hand  possesseth  .  .  .  and  any 
believing  woman  who  hath  given  herself  up  to 
the  Prophet,  if  the  Prophet  desireth  towed  her, — 
a  privilege   for  thee  above  the  rest  of  the  Faith- 


188      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

ful."  Some  disgraceful  incidents  were  connected 
with  his  many  amours,  and  high  minded  Moham- 
medans have  had  to  apologize  for  their  Prophet. 
In  moral  character  he  fell  far  below  Buddha,  and 
he  is  not  to  be  mentioned  in  this  regard  with  the 
great  prophets  of  Israel  who  preceded  him  by 
many  centuries,  but  whom  he  claimed  to  super- 
sede.- Instead  of,  like  Christ,  offering  a  moral 
ideal  to  his  followers,  Mohammed  is  to  them  a 
moral  warning.  (See  Koelle,  ''Mohammed  and 
Mohammedanism, "  pp.  487-509  ;  Ameer  AH 
Syed,  ''The  Spirit  of  Islam,"  pp.  193-198.) 
Use  of  It     was    after    reaching     Medina,     also,    that 

Force.  Mohammed  began  to  use   force   in  the  spread  of 

his  religion,  and  to  introduce  the  idea  of  plunder 
and  conquest.  (Rouse,  "Tracts  for  Moham- 
medans," p.  66.)  At  Mecca  he  had  been  with- 
out power  which  he  could  use,  and  his  sole 
mission  had  been  that  of  a  religious  reformer. 
But  now  at  Medina  his  church  became  a  state,  he 
\  unhesitatingly  began  to  use  violence  and  the 
sword,  and  he  poisoned  the  purity  of  religious 
motive  by  the  lust  of  plunder.  The  traditions  of 
Arabia  and  the  environment  and  principles  of  the 
new  faith  readily  explain  these  facts,  but  they  do 
not  justify  them,  and  the  facts  themselves  show 
the  inferiority  and  inadequacy  of  Islam.  Mo- 
hammed as  soon  as  possible,  acting  as  chief 
magistrate  of  Medina  and  as  head  of  Islam, 
opened  hostilities  against  the  people  of  Mecca. 
The   Mecca    caravans    to   Syria   had   to   traverse 


MOHAMMEDANISM  189 

foutes  where  they  could  be  intercepted  from 
Medina.  Mohammed  set  out  to  attack  one  of 
these  caravans  on  the  seacoast  route.  The  cara- 
van escaped,  but  a  battle  w^as  fought  at  Badr 
betw^een  Mohammed  and  an  army  sent  from  Mecca 
to  protect  the  caravan  from  the  threatened  attack. 
This  victory  and  the  booty  secured  were  the  begin- 
ning of  the  relentless  policy  of  conquest  of  Islam. 
(Sell,  '^The  Battles  of  Badr  and  of  Uhud,"  p.  43 
f.)  Then  began  also  Islam's  policy  of  mingled 
mercy  and  pitiless  cruelty.  The  prisoners  taken 
at  Badr  were  handcuffed  and  marched  with  the 
army  returning  to  Medina.  On  the  way  two 
were  ordered  to  be  executed.  One  ventured  to 
ask  why  he  was  dealt  with  more  rigorously  than 
the  rest.  '^Because,"  replied  Mohammed,  ^'of 
thine  enmity  to  God  and  His  Prophet."  ''And 
my  little  girl,"  cried  the  captive,  in  bitterness  of 
soul,  ''who  will  take  care  of  her?"  "Hell  fire," 
answered  the  Prophet,  as  the  victim  was  hewn  to 
the  ground.  "Wretch  and  persecutor!"  he  con- 
tinued; "scorner  of  God,  of  His  Prophet,  and  of 
His  word;  I  thank  the  Lord,  who  hath  comforted 
mine  eyes  by  thy  death."  (Mulr,  "Mahomet 
and  Islam,"  p.  100.)  Individuals  in  Medina 
who  troubled  him  he  removed  without  qualms. 
A  woman  named  Alma  at  Medina  disbelieved  in 
him  and  wrote  poems  against  him.  An  assassin 
crept  Into  her  apartment  at  night,  removed  a 
suckling  babe  from  her  breast  and  transfixed  her 
to  her  couch    with    his  sword.      "Next   mornlngr 


190       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

in  the  Mosque  at  prayer,  Omar  acquainted  Mo- 
hammed (who  was  aware  of  the  design)  with 
what  he  had  done,  and  asked  whether  there  was 
any  cause  for  apprehension.  ^None  whatever,' 
replied  the  ProjDhet;  ^a  couple  of  goats  will 
hardly  knock  their  heads  together  for  it.'  Then 
turning  to  the  bystanders,  he  remarked,  'Behold 
a  man  that  hath  assisted  the  Lord  and  His 
Prophet.'"  (Muir,  ''Mahomet  and  Islam,"  p. 
103  f. )  A  few  weeks  later,  annoyed  by  another 
unbeliever,  Mohammed  exclaimed  to  those  about 
him,  "Who  will  rid  us  of  this  pestilent  fellow?" 
A  faithful  friend  shortly  after  fell  upon  the 
troubler  as  he  slept.  Some  months  after  this  Mo- 
hammed prayed  aloud  of  another  whom  he  dis- 
liked, "O  Lord,  rid  me  of  the  son  of  Ashraf  in 
whatsoever  way  Thou  wilt. ' '  And  then  prompted 
his  followers  to  murder  by  asking,  "Who  will 
ease  me  of  this  pestilent  fellow,  for  he  troubleth 
me?"  "Here  am  I,"  said  Mohammed  son  of 
Maslama,  "I  will  slay  him."  With  four  others, 
he  attacked  him  treacherously,  and  brought  his 
head  to  the  Prophet  at  the  gateway  of  the 
Mosque.  "Welcome,  "  he  exclaimed  ;  "for  I  see 
that  your  faces  beam  with  victory."  "And 
thine  too!"  they  added,  as  they  cast  the  ghastly 
head  of  their  victim  at  his  feet.  (Muir,  "Ma- 
homet and  Islam,"  p.  107.) 

Mohammed  now  dealt  with  the  Jewish  tribes 
round  about  with  relentless  severity,  seeking 
pretexts  for  their  extermination  or  exile.      He  also 


Persia — Group  of  Dervishes 


MOHAMMEDANISM  191 

waged  war  against  the  Arab  tribes  in  the  interior, 
and,  eight  years  after  the  Hegira,  returned  with 
an  army  of  ten  thousand  and  conquered  Mecca. 

All  this  career  of  war  and  bloodshed,  however, 
was  filled  also  with  clemency  and  kindness.  It 
was  against  unbelievers  and  adversaries  that  the 
Prophet  displayed  hostility  and  vindictiveness. 
The  acceptance  of  Islam  made  a  man  at  once 
his  brother  and  his  friend.  In  the  development 
of  Islam  nov^,  but  especially  later,  it  became 
necessary  to  devise  working  arrangements  con- 
cerning the  case  of  peoples  who  fell  within  the 
territory  or  authority  of  Islam,  but  who  would 
not  accept  the  religion.  There  was  often  good 
will  and  fairness  shown  in  these  relations,  but 
this  was  the  exception  and  not  the  rule,  and  both 
in  Mohammed's  lifetime  and  afterwards,  the 
pressure  of  persecution  and  oppression  upon  all 
unbelievers  was  almost  crushing. 

These  developments  of  Mohammed's  character 
and  methods  at  Medina,  following  naturally  upon 
his  religious  success  and  the  position  of  political 
authority  which  he  of  necessity  took  up,  were 
accompanied  by  interesting  developments  in  his 
religious  teaching.  At  Mecca  and  when  he  first 
came  to  Medina,  when  he  still  hoped  to  win  the 
Jewish  tribes,  the  sections  of  the  Koran  which  he 
gave  out  were  full  of  Christian  and  Jewish 
elements,  but  these  elements  grew  less  and  less, 
although  the  growing  Koran  still  preserved  all 
that  was  good  in  the  new  faith.  At  first  in 
Medina    Mohammed    prayed   toward    Jerusalem. 


Infl 


uence. 


192       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

But  he  turned  soon  to  Mecca  and  thenceforward 
his  religion  faced  back  towards  its  semi-pagan 
and  Ishmaelitic  elements.  Nevertheless  the  truly 
religious  fervor  of  the  faith  glowed  with  a  great 
burning,  and  when  Mohammed  died  on  June  8, 
632,  the  new  force  which  he  had  introduced  had 
remolded  Arabia,  and  begun  to  affect  the  whole 
Eastern  world. 
Mohammed's  Ameer  Ali,  Syed,  representing  the  best  type  of 
Modern  Mohammedan,  sums  up  the  Moslem  view 
of  the  Prophet's  influence; — 

Thus  disappeared  from  the  scene  one  of  the  greatest, 
if  not  in  very  truth  the  greatest,  of  God's  servants,  who 
have  lived  and  worked  for  the  good  of  mankind.  He 
found  the  bulk  of  his  own  people  sunk  in  the  grossest 
fetichism,  decimated  by  tribal  feuds,  addicted  to  infan- 
ticide and  the  worst  forms  of  pagan  practices.  Here 
and  there  individuals  had  broken  away  from  the  old 
cults,  but  were  still  groping  in  darkness  in  search  of 
the  road  to  truth  and  salvation,  unsatisfied  spirits  to 
whom  neither  Judaism  nor  Christianity  brought  any 
solution  to  the  enigmas  of  life. 

In  less  than  a  decade  he  not  only  stamped  out  the 
pagan  ways  and  habits  which  held  the  heart  of  Arabia, 
but  infused  into  his  folk  a  new  life,  imparted  to  them  a 
new  conception  of  duty,  of  moral  responsibilities  of 
which  they  had  been  wholly  devoid  before.  The  benef- 
icence of  his  work  was  not  confined  to  his  own 
countrymen.  His  words  revived  the  religious  spirit  of 
surrounding  nations,  whose  moral  abasement  was 
equally  deplorable.  (Ameer  Ali,  Syed,  "Islam,"  p. 
51  f.) 

This  estimate  regards  as  accomplished  what 
Abu  Bakr  and  Omar  had  to  do  as  the  first  Khalifs 


MOHAMMEDANISM  193 

or  successors  of  Mohammed.  But  the  task  was 
already  done  in  germ.  As  Professor  Margoliouth 
says,  "His  political  work  was  not  left  half 
finished  at  his  death;  he  had  founded  an  empire 
with  a  religious  and  a  political  capital;  he  had 
made  a  nation  of  a  loose  agglomeration  of  tribes. 
He  had  given  them  a  rallying  point  in  their 
common  religion,  and  therein  discovered  a  bond 
more  permanent  than  a  dynasty.  The  old  faiths 
w^hich  had  survived  so  long  in  secluded  Arabia 
had  been  given  their  death  blow;  some  of  their 
practice  was  indeed  taken  over  unaltered,  but  the 
old  names  were  utterly  destroyed.  'Though 
Mohammed  is  dead,  yet  is  Mohammed's  God  not 
dead.'"      (Margoliouth,  ''Mohammed,"   p.    471 

f.) 

On  no  problem  in  human  character  has  there  The  Problem 
been,  perhaps,  more  dispute  than  on  the  character  of  Moham- 
of  Mohammed.  Was  he  a  good  man  or  a  bad 
man,  a  prophet  or  an  impostor?  The  Rev.  G.  A. 
Lefroy,  Bishop  of  Lahore,  a  true  Christian  mis- 
sionary and  a  lover  of  the  Mohammedan  peoples, 
has  set  forth  what  we  must  hold  to  be  the  true 
answer : — 

I  believe  Mohammed  to  have  been,  especially  in  the 
beginning  of  his  career,  an  earnest  man,  genuinely 
seeking  after  truth  with,  in  large  measure,  pure 
motives,  and  free  from  personal  aims.  I  believe  that 
he  saw  truths  far  grander  and  deeper  than  those  which 
most  of  his  countrymen  saw,  and  that  he  labored  hard 
and  long,  amid  every  discouragement  and  often  at  the 
risk  of  his  life,  to   bring  home  to  his  people  the  knowl- 


194       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

edge  of  these  truths  and  to  redeem  them  from  the  gross 
idolatry,  the  infanticide,  and  the  many  social  and 
religious  evils  in  which  they  were  sunk.  I  have  no 
doubt  that  he  believed  he  had  a  real  mission  of  God, 
and  I  believe  he  was  right  in  thinking  so,  and  that, 
at  any  rate  at  one  part  of  his  life,  the  spirit  of  God 
was  working  strongly  within  him,  and  calling  him  to 
a  great  work.  But  I  believe  that  with  the  access  of 
power  there  came  a  fatal  lowering  of  aims,  and  of  the 
tone  of  his  own  life,  till — from  regarding  himself  so 
long  as  the  mouthpiece  of  God — he  permitted  himself 
first  to  disregard  his  conscience,  and  then  to  take  that 
last  and  awful  step,  in  which  also  he  is  not  alone  among 
those  whom  God  has  called  to  noble  aims  and  high 
privileges,  of  identifying  the  voice  of  God  with  the 
promptings  even  of  his  lower  nature,  and  claiming  the 
divine  authority  for  that  which  he  ought  to  have 
repelled  as,  what  it  indeed  was,  the  very  tempting  of 
the  evil  one  himself.  ("Mahomedanism,  Its  Strength 
and  Weakness,"  p.  21.) 

Was  According  to   the  standards   of  goodness  pre- 

Mohammed  a  vailing   in   Arabia    in   the   seventh    century,  Mo- 
Prophct?  hammed   was  a  truly  good   and   noble   man.      He 

w^as  guilty  of  bloodshed  and  sensuality,  but  these 
were  common  Arabian  vices.  He  was  in  the 
conditions  of  his  time  a  righteous  man.  Measured 
by  the  character  of  Christ  he  was  pitiable  and  vile. 
As  to  his  teaching,  he  saw  and  taught  some  great 
truths.  Those  who  believed  on  his  word  were 
led  forward  into  a  far  nobler  thought  of  God  than 
they  had  ever  had  before.  It  was  an  inadequate 
thought  of  God,  but  it  was  great  and  splendid, 
and  so  far  as  it  was  true,  the  man  who  saw  it  and 
spoke  it  was  teaching  the   truth  of   God.     But  as 


MOHAMMEDANISM  195 

prophet  in  the  sense  that  Isaiah  or  Paul  were 
prophets,  as  pure  spiritual  teachers  representing 
the  highest  moral  ideals,  or  even  more  in  the 
sense  that  Christ  was  a  Prophet,  a  prophet  Mo- 
hammed was  not.  The  moral  and  intellectual 
and  spiritual  limitations  of  his  message  show  that 
he  bore  no  such  commission  as  the  prophets  of 
Israel,  or  the  apostles  of  Christ.  Whatever  moral 
superiority  and  pro^^hetic  authority  Mohammed 
had  were  relative,  in  comparison  wholly  with  the 
Arabian  life  about  him.  They  were  not  absolute 
or  ideal.  In  so  far  as  they  have  been  made  so  by 
Islam  they  have  been  a  shackle  and  a  shame  to 
humanity. 

And,  now,  we  must  ask  what  was  the  religion  Motammecl- 
which  Mohammed  founded,  and  which  is  held  anism. 
to-day  by  two  hundred  million  of  our  fellow 
creatures?  With  Mohammed  it  was  at  the  outset 
the  acceptance  of  the  fundamental  declaration, 
"There  is  no  god  but  God  and  Mohammed  is  the 
prophet  of  God,"  but  its  theology  and  ritual  soon 
outgrew  the  single  affirmation  with  which  it  began. 
We  can  gain  a  general  view  of  the  faith  by  con- 
sidering its  foundations,  its  doctrines  and  its  prac- 
tical duties.      (See  Sell,  ''The  Faith  of  Islam.") 

1.    The    foundations    of    Islam    are    four,    the   The  Founda- 
Koran,  the  Sunnat,  Ijma  and  Qias.  tions  of  Islam. 

The  first  and   main   foundation    is  the   Koran.    The  Koran. 
The  word  Koran  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  word 
to  read.      For  this  Bible  of  Mohammedanism  the 
Moslems  have  the  loftiest   veneration.      It  is  held 


196        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

by  them  to  have  existed  uncreated  from  eternity, 
resting  on  a  great  table  of  fabulous  size,  from 
which  it  was  brought  down  as  needed  by  Gabriel, 
who  gave  it  to  Mohammed  phrase  by  phrase  and 
word  by  word.  Mohammed  in  admitting  that  he 
worked  no  miracles,  appealed  instead  to  the 
Koran,  which  he  claimed  as  a  unique  and  per- 
petual miracle.  And  it  has  been  so  regarded  by 
Moslems. 

So  sacred  is  the  text  supposed  to  be  that  only  the 
Companions  of  the  Prophet  are  deemed  worthy  of  being 
commentators  on  it.  The  work  of  learned  divines  since 
then  has  been  to  learn  the  Koran  by  heart  and  to  master 
the  traditions,  with  the  writings  of  the  earliest  com- 
mentators thereon.  The  revelation  itself  is  never  made 
a  subject  of  investigation  or  tried  by  the  ordinary 
rules  of  criticism.  If  only  the  Isnad,  or  chain  of 
authorities  for  any  interpretation,  is  good,  that  inter- 
pretation is  unhesitatingly  accepted  as  the  correct  one. 
It  is  a  fundamental  article  of  belief  that  no  other  book 
in  the  world  can  possibly  approach  near  to  it  in  thought 
or  expression.  It  deals  with  positive  precepts,  rather 
than  with  principles.  Its  decrees  are  held  to  be  bind- 
ing, not  in  the  spirit  merely,  but  in  the  very  letter,  on 
all  men,  at  all  times  and  under  every  circumstance 
of  life.  This  follows  as  a  natural  consequence  from 
the  belief  in  its  eternal  nature.  (Sell,  ''The  Faith  of 
Islam,"  p.  6  f.) 

While  held  to  be  an  eternal,  uncreated  book, 
the  Koran  nevertheless  is  made  up  of  a  long 
series  of  Mohammed's  utterances  in  the  form  of 
revelations  from  God,  uttered  by  God  in  the  first 
person  plural;  and  these  revelations,  so  far  from 
being  eternal,  often   contradict  one  another,  later 


MO  HA  MM B  DANISM  197 

ones  abrogating  earlier  ones;  they  are  full  of 
legends  learned  secondhand  from  Rabbinic 
traditions  of  the  Jews,  or  from  apocryphal  Chris- 
tian books;  and  when  chronologically  arranged, 
their  connection  with  the  successive  incidents  and 
problems  of  Mohammed's  life  makes  them  almost 
autobiographical.  Ameer  AH,  Syed,  frankly 
concedes  the  influence  of  contemporary  thought 
upon  Mohammed's  mind: — 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  Suras  of  the  intermediate 
period,  before  the  mind  of  the  teacher  had  attained  the 
full  development  of  religious  consciousness,  and  when 
it  was  necessary  to  formulate  in  language  intelligible 
to  the  common  folk  of  the  desert,  the  realistic  descrip- 
tions of  heaven  and  hell,  borrowed  from  the  floating 
fancies  of  Zoroastrianism,  Sabianism  and  the  Talmudic 
Jew,  attract  the  attention  as  a  side  picture,  and  then 
comes  the  real  essence — the  adoration  of  God  in 
humility  and  love.  The  hooris  are  creatures  of  Zo- 
roastrian  origin,  so  is  paradise  (in  Persian  ''firdaus"), 
whilst  hell,  in  the  severity  of  its  punishment,  is  Tal- 
mudic. (''Spirit  of  Islam,"  p.  235  f.  Quoted  in  Gold- 
sack,  ''The  Origins  of  the  Qur'an,"  p.  10  f.) 

A  single  breath  of  true  criticism  destroys  the 
Moslem  idea  of  an  eternal  Koran.  But  the 
obvious  use  of  the  revelations  by  Mohammed  to 
provide  for  crises  which  arose,  is  destructive  not 
only  of  the  idea  of  an  uncreated  book,  but  also  of 
the  claim  of  the  book  as  a  true  revelation  from 
God.  (See  Sell,  "Historical  Development  of  the 
Quran.")  When  his  wives  complained  with 
good  reason  of  his  irregularities,  he  silenced  them 
by  a  regulation  allowing  him  conjugal  excesses 
which   he   had   himself  proscribed   as   unlawful. 


198        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

When  he  wished  to  marry  the  wife  of  his  adopted 
son,  a  form  of  marriage  forbidden  by  his  own 
law,  he  issued  a  revelation  from  God  encouraging 
him  to  the  transgression.  It  is  wonderful  that 
the  faith  of  his  followers  bore  the  strain.  It  not 
only  bore  it,  but  it  also  elevated  the  revelations 
into  the  very  eternal  being  of  God. 

After  Mohammed's  death  the  revelations  which 
were  scattered  about  were  collected.  Subse- 
quently an  authorized  edition  was  pre^^ared  and 
all  others  were  destroyed,  and  the  uncreated,  un- 
translatable miracle  of  the  Koran  was  passed 
down  to  us.  The  true  Moslem  still  deems  it  the 
book  of  all  books,  holding  a  theory  of  literal 
inspiration  and  absolute  authority  regarding  it, 
and  seeing  in  it  a  truly  heavenly  beauty.  The 
Western  mind  has  usually  taken  an  unfavorable 
view  of  it.  Nevertheless  the  Koran  is  a  wonder- 
ful book,  with  many  passages  of  noble  truth,  and 
of  great  beauty,  preserved  even  in  our  translations 
of  what  the  Moslems  regard  as  its  miraculous 
Arabic. 
Sunnat,  Ijma  The  Other  foundations  of  Islam  are  the  Sunnat, 
and  Qias.  Ijma   and   Qias.      The   Sunnat    is  ''the   basis   of 

religious  faith  and  practice,  which  is  founded  on 
traditional  accounts  of  the  sayings  and  acts  of 
Mohammed."  In  all  that  he  did  and  said  Mos- 
lems hold  that  Mohammed  was  supernaturally 
guided.  It  is  this  which  makes  his  moral  ex- 
ample so  dangerous.  And  the  contention  that 
Mohammed  did  not  himself  claim  this  authority 


MOHAMMEDANISM  199 

cannot  be  upheld.  ''He  who  loves  not  my  Sun- 
nat  (/.  ^.,  my  command  or  example)  is  not  my 
follower."  This  was  his  own  word,  and  a 
learned  theologian  of  Islam  has  stated  the  essence 
of  religion  to  consist  of  three  things:  ''first,  to 
follow  the  Prophet  in  morals  and  in  acts; 
secondly,  to  eat  only  lawful  food;  thirdly,  to  be 
sincere  in  all  actions."  (Sell,  "The  Faith  of 
Islam,"  p.  15.)  There  are  six  books  of  these 
Traditions  and  every  accepted  act  or  word  of  Mo- 
hammed's in  them  is  a  law  as  binding  upon  the 
Moslem  as  the  word  or  example  of  Christ  is  upon 
Christians.  The  third  foundation  of  the  Faith  is 
called  Ijma,  a  word  meaning  collected.  It  means 
technically  the  general  consent  of  the  leading 
theologians,  but  pre-eminently  it  is  a  collection 
of  the  opinions  of  the  Companions,  the  men  who 
knew  Mohammed.  Qias  is  the  fourth  foundation. 
It  means  the  reasonins:  of  the  learned  with  reg-ard 
to  the  teaching  of  the  three  other  foundations. 

These  four  foundations  are  regarded  by  Mos-   The 
lems  as   forming  a  perfect   basis   of  religion   and   Foundationa  a 
polity.      "They    secure    the    permanence   of    the   Shackle  Upon 
system,   but  they  repress  an    intelligent  growth. " 
No  nation  can  advance  around  whose  intellectual 
and    political    life   the    coils    of   these  antiquated 
authorities  are  wound.      "The   jurists  of   Persia, 
it    seems,     are    against    constitutionalism,"    said 
Isma'il    Hakki    Effendi,  one   of   the   best    known 
Mohammedan   preachers    in  Constantinople,  in  a 
sermon    in    1909.      "Those   rascals   have   always 


200         THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

been  on  the  side  of  autocracy.  A  group  of  the 
Persian  Ulema  belonging  to  the  royalists  are 
clamoring  for  despotic  government.  .  .  .  And 
the  jurists  solemnly  declare  that  this  is  not  their 
own  ruling  but  that  of  the  canon  law  of  Moham- 
medanism. .  .  .  According  to  the  false  notions 
of  the  Persian  Ulema,  Islam  does  not  permit  of 
constitutionalism,  but  is  an  absolute  monarchy! 
Oh,  reverent  jurists,  there  is  no  religion,  no  code 
which  advocates  constitutionalism  as  strongly  as 
does  Islam."  ("Moslem  Sermons,"  ''Hibbert 
Journal,"  April,  1910,  p.  658.)  Our  hearts  re- 
joice with  the  preacher  in  his  deliverance. 
Nevertheless  the  Persian  priests  are  right.  Islam 
can  live  under  constitutionalism,  but  it  will  not  be 
the  Islam  of  Mohammed  and  the  Khalifs  and  of 
the  fourteen  centuries  of  consistent  Mohammedan 
absolutism. 
Tte  Doctrine  ^'  '^^^  doctrine  of  Islam.  The  Kalima  is  the 
of  Islam.  simple  creed  of  Islam:   "There  is  no  god  but  God 

and  Mohammed  is  the  Aj^ostle  of  God,"  but  this 
includes  as  indispensable  the  acceptance  of  God, 
Angels,  Books,  Prophets,  the  Resurrection  and 
Day  of  Judgment,  and  the  Predestination  of  good 
and  evil. 
The  Moslem  '^^^  central   merit  of  Mohammedanism  was  its 

Idea  of  God.  uncompromising  assertion  of  the  unity  and  sov- 
ereignty of  God.  Men  must  surrender  to  Him. 
Hence  the  name  of  Islam,  by  which  Mohammedan- 
ism is  known, — surrender.  The  Koran  is  full  of 
the  noble  proclamation  of  this  truth  of  God's  single 


MOHAMMEDANISM  ^01 

supremacy:  "God,  there  is  no  God  but  He,  the 
living,  the  eternal ;  slumber  doth  not  overtake 
Him,  neither  sleep;  to  Him  belongeth  all  that  is 
in  heaven  and  in  earth.  Who  is  he  that  can  in- 
tercede with  Him  but  with  His  own  permission? 
He  knoweth  that  which  is  past  and  that  which  is 
to  come  unto  them,  and  they  cannot  comprehend 
any  of  His  knowledge  but  so  far  as  He  pleaseth. 
His  throne  is  extended  over  heaven  and  earth,  and 
the  upholding  of  both  is  no  burden  unto  Him. 
He  is  the  lofty  and  the  great." 

Mohammed  did  not  discover  monotheism. 
From  the  Jews  and  from  the  Hanifs,  a  con- 
temporary theistic  sect,  from  many  currents  of 
thought  and  from  the  unified  testimony  of  Nature 
in  the  desert,  he  knew  of  the  one  God.  The 
great  fact,  however,  was  that  the  sense  of  this 
one  God  and  of  His  government  of  men  became 
the  overwhelming  conviction  of  Mohammed's 
soul,  and  lifted  him  into  a  consciousness  of 
mission  which  bore  him  out  into  his  wonderful 
career.  In  the  midst  of  timid  and  wrangling  men 
and  nations  sunk  in  practical  atheism,  and  godless 
Jews  and  idolatrous  Christians,  he  stood  forth  as 
one  who  knew  God  and  v/as  not  afraid: — 

He  it  is  who  shows  vou  the  lightning  for  fear  and 
hope;  and  He  brings  up  the  heavy  clouds.  And  the 
thunder  celebrates  His  praise,  and  the  angels  too,  for 
fear  of  Him.  And  he  sends  the  thunder  clap  and  over- 
takes therewith  whom  He  will.  Yet  they  wrangle  about 
God !     But  He  is  strong  in  might. 


202        THE  LIGHT  OF  7HE   WORLD 

Your  God  is  one  God  ;  there  is  no  God  but  He,  the 
Merciful,  the  Compassionate.  Verily  in  the  creation 
of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  the  alternation  of 
night  and  day,  and  in  the  ship  that  runneth  in  the  sea 
with  that  which  profits  man,  and  in  what  water  God 
sends  down  from  heaven  and  quickens  therewith  the 
earth  after  its  death,  and  spreads  abroad  therein  all 
kinds  of  cattle,  and  in  the  shifting  of  the  winds,  and  in 
the  clouds  that  are  pressed  into  service  betwixt  heaven 
and  earth,  are  signs  to  people  who  can  understand. 

The  Moslem  idea  of  God,  however,  has  lacked 
from  the  outset  elements  without  which  it  is  both 
V  false  and  unfruitful.  The  essential  attributes  of 
God  in  Islam  are  Life,  Knowledge,  Power,  Will, 
Hearing,  Seeing,  Speech.  The  Koran  contains 
ninety-nine  names  of  God,  and  these  are  of  course 
attributes,  but  the  seven  named  are  the  primary 
and  essential  ones. /.  And  they  fail  to  include, 
and  this  is  the  defect  of  the  whole  Moslem  doctrine 
of  God,  the  fatherhood  of  God,  the  attribute  of 
love,  and  the  principle  of  ethical  justice,  while 
the  conceptions  which  are  included  in  the  Mos- 
lem view  are  inharmonious  among  themselves. 
(Zvvemcr,  ''The  Moslem  Doctrine  of  God"; 
Gairdner,  "The  Muslim  Idea  of  God";  Gold- 
sack,  "God  in  Islam";  Zwemer,  "Islam,"  ]).  SQ 
f ;  Rice,  "Crusaders  of  the  Twentieth  Century," 
pp.  231-239.)  God  is  "the  Absolute,  the  Un- 
conditioned, the  Not-responsible  to  men,  the  Ir- 
resistible in  will  and  power,  the  Unbegotten  and 
Unbegetting,  the  All-suflRcient,  who  needs  neither 
the  world  nor  the  men  whom  He  has  created." 
(Gairdner,  "The  Muslim  Idea  of  God,"  p.  12.) 


MOHAMMEDANISM  203 

The  Moslem  conception  of  God,  as  Dr.  Wash- 
burn says,  ^Ms  that  of  an  absolute  oriental 
monarch,  and  His  unlimited  power  to  do  what 
He  pleases  makes  entire  submission  to  His  will 
the  first,  most  prominent  duty.  The  name  which 
they  give  to  their  religion  implies  that.  It  is 
Islam,  which  means  submission  or  resignation. 
(''Parliament  of  Religions,"  Vol.  I,  pp.  569, 
570.)  And  Palgrave,  whose  knowledge  and 
judgment  were  reliable,  says  of  the  Moslem 
idea: —  ^^ 

God  is  one  in  the  totality  of  omnipotent  and  omni- 
present action  which  acknowledges  no  rule,  standard,  or 
limits,  save  one  sole  and  absolute  will.  He  himself, 
sterile  in  His  inaccessible  height,  neither  loving  nor 
enjoj'ing  aught  save  his  own  and  self-measured  decree, 
without  son,  companion,  or  councillor,  is  no  less  barren 
for  Himself  than  for  His  creatures  ;  and  His  own  bar- 
renness and  lone  egoism  in  Himself  is  the  cause  and 
rule  of  His  indifferent  and  unregarding  despotism 
around. 

There  was  far  more  in  Mohammed's  idea  than 
this,  and  this  idea,  inadequate  as  it  was,  bred  a 
certain  great  manhood  in  those  who  held  it,  but 
it  contained  no  elements  of  fellowship  or  of  life. 
It  was  in  its  very  nature  alien  and  antagonistic 
to  the  central  Christian  ideal  of  God  as  father. 

The  Moslem  creed    includes  an  elaborate   faith   Angels, Booka, 
in  Angels,  many   of   whom  are  named   and  their  Prophets, 
duties  designated,  and   in  genii  or    jinns,  beings 
created   of   fire    long    before  man,  and    in  sacred 
Books  of  which  there  are  one   hundred   and  four 


'204:       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

in  all,  sent  down  through  Gabriel  to  the  prophets, 
— to  Adam  ten,  to  Seth  fifty,  to  Enoch  thirty,  to 
Abraham  ten,  to  Moses  the  Tamat  or  Pentateuch, 
to  David  the  Psalms,  to  Jesus  the  Injil  or  Gospel, 
to  Mohammed  the  final  and  superseding  book, 
the  Koran,  which,  as  Al  Berkevi  says,  ^'is  to  be 
followed  till  the  day  of  judgment.  It  can  neither 
be  abrogated  nor  changed. ' '  Regarding  the  belief 
in  Prophets,  Al  Berkevi  says: — 

It  is  necessary  to  confess  that  God  has  sent  prophets  ; 
that  Adam  is  the  first  of  the  prophets  and  the  father  of 
all  men;  that  Mohammed  is  the  last  of  the  prophets; 
that  between  Adam  and  Mohammed  there  were  a  great 
number  of  prophets ;  that  Mohammed  is  the  most  ex- 
cellent of  all  and  that  his  people  are  the  best  of  all 
peoples  ;  that  each  of  the  preceding  prophets  was  sent 
to  a  special  people,  some  with  books,  some  without, 
but  that  Mohammed  was  sent  to  all  men  and  also  to  the 
genii ;  that  his  law  will  remain  until  the  end  of  the 
world.      (Sell,  ''The  Faith  of  Islam,"  p.  150.) 

Resurrection,         Then  will  come  the  Resurrection  and  the  Judg- 
Judgment  and   ment,of  which  the  Koran  and  the  Moslem  writers 
eaven.  ^-^^    vivid   pictures    (Sale,     "Preliminary    Dis- 

course,"  Section  IV,  pp.  59-80),  culminating  in 
the  familiar  descriptions  of  Paradise,  which  Ameer 
AH  interprets  figuratively,  but  which  the  general 
and  orthodox  opinion  has  always  received  in  the 
obvious  and  literal  acceptance. 

But  for  him  who  dreadeth  the  tribunal  of  his  Lord, 
are  prepared  two  gardens.  Planted  with  shady  trees. 
In  each  of  them  shall  be  two  fountains  flowing.  In 
each  of  them  shall  there  be  of  every  fruit  two  kinds. 
They  shall  repose  on  couches^  the  linings  whereof  shall 


MOHAMMEDANISM  205 

be  of  thick  silk  interwoven  with  gold  ;  and  the  fruit  of 
the  two  gardens  shall  be  near  at  hand  together.  Therein 
shall  receive  them  beauteous  damsels,  refraining  their 
ejes  from  beholding  any  besides  their  spouses,  whom 
no  man  shall  have  deflowered  before  them,  neither  any 
jinn.  Having  complexions  like  rubies  and  pearls. 
Shall  the  reward  of  good  works  be  any  other  than  good? 
And  besides  these  there  shall  be  two  other  gardens.  Of 
a  dark  green.  In  each  of  them  shall  be  two  fountains 
pouring  forth  plenty  of  water.  In  each  of  them  shall 
be  fruits,  and  palm  trees  and  pomegranates.  Therein 
shall  be  agreeable  and  beauteous  damsels.  Having  fine 
black  eyes;  and  kept  in  pavilions  from  public  view. 
Whom  no  man  shall  have  deflowered,  before  their  des- 
tined spouses,  nor  any  jinn.  Therein  shall  they  delight 
themselves,  lying  on  green  cushions  and  beautiful  car- 
pets. Blessed  be  the  name  of  thy  Lord  possessed  of 
glory  and  honor.      (Koran,  Sura  LV,  41-78.) 

The  remaining  dogma  of  the  Mohammedan  Predestina- 
confession  is  predestination.  Some  quotations  tion. 
from  the  Koran  and  the  Traditions,  which  it  must 
be  remembered  are  in  Moslem  eyes  as  valid  as 
the  Koran,  will  suffice  to  represent  the  Moslem 
doctrine.  "The  Prophet  said,  Verily,  the  first ^^ 
thing  which  God  created  was  the  pen.  And  He 
said  to  it,  write.  It  said,  what  shall  I  write.? 
He  said,  write  down  the  divine  decrees  (qadar) ; 
and  it  wrote  down  all  that  was  and  all  that  will 
be  to  eternity."  "And  God  has  created  you  and 
what  ye  do."  "Every  man's  fate  (lit.,  bird) 
have  we  fastened  on  his  neck."  "He  leads 
astray  whom  He  will,  and  guides  whom  He 
will."  "The  plague  is  a  punishment  .  .  .  and 
when  it   arrives    at  any  place  where   you    are,  do 


20G       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

not  flee  away  from  it."  '^ Verily  God  most  high 
has  ordained  five  things  on  each  of  His  servants 
from  His  creation:  his  appointed  time,  his 
actions,  his  dwelling  place,  his  travels  and  his 
subsistence."  Little  wonder  that,  with  such  a 
creed,  the  Companions  of  the  Prophet  should  ask 
in  bewilderment,  ''What  use,  then,  of  our 
striving  at  all  ?"  To  which  Mohammed  made  the 
rejoinder,  "When  God  creates  any  servant  for 
heaven,  He  causes  him  to  go  in  the  way  of  those 
destined  for  heaven,  until  he  dies,  after  which 
He  takes  him  to  heaven.  And  when  He  creates 
any  servant  for  the  fire  of  hell,  then  He  causes 
him  to  go  in  the  way  of  those  destined  for  hell 
until  his  death,  after  which  He  takes  him  to 
hell!" 

The  moving  finger  writes  ;  and,  having  writ, 
Moves  on;  nor  all  your  piety  or  wit 

Shall  lure  it  back  to  cancel  half  a  line, 
Nor  all  your  tears  wash  out  a  word  of  it. 

What  Omar  Khayyam  puts  in  his  cynical  verse, 
Al  Berkevi  candidly  concedes:  ''It  is  necessary 
to  confess  that  good  and  evil  take  place  by  the 
predestination  and  predetermination  of  God,  that 
all  that  has  been  and  all  that  will  be  was  decreed 
in  eternity,  and  written  on  the  preserved  table; 
that  the  faith  of  the  believer,  the  piety  of  the  pious 
and  good  actions  are  foreseen,  willed,  predestined, 
decreed  by  the  writing  on  the  prese7'ved  table ; 
produced  and  approved  by  God;  that  the  unbelief 
of  the  unbeliever,  the  impiety  of  the  impious  and 


MOHAMMEDANISM  207 

bad  actions  come  to  pass  with  the  foreknowledge, 
will,  predestination  and  decree  of  God,  but  not 
with  His  satisfaction  and  approval.  Should  any 
ask  why  God  willeth  and  j^roduceth  evil,  we  can 
only  reply  that  He  may  have  wise  ends  in  view 
which  we  cannot  comprehend."  (Sell,  "The 
Faith  of  Islam,"  p.  173.) 

It  cannot  be  charged  that  this  hopeless  doctrine 
of  an  iron  predestinarianism  affected  the  freedom 
of  movement  of  Mohammed  and  the  Khalifs  who 
succeeded  him.  It  did  not.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  gave  them  such  a  resistless  courage  and  undy- 
ing purpose  as  neither  man  nor  nature  could  sub- 
due. But  when  the  first  vivid  enthusiasm 
subsided,  then  the  inevitable  poison  of  the  doctrine 
began  to  work  its  effects.  '^ Before  thou  and  I 
were  thought  of,"  writes  the  poet  Farzi,  "our 
free  will  was  taken  from  our  hands ;  be  without 
cares,  for  the  Maker  of  both  worlds  settled  our 
affairs  long  before  we  were  made."  In  personal 
morals  Omar  Khayyam  draws  out  the  consequence 
of  Mohammed's  doctrines: — 

The  Ball  no  Question  makes  of  Ajes  and  Noes, 
But  Right  or  Left,  as  strikes  the  Player  goes; 

And  He  that  toss'd  Thee  down  into  the  Field, 
He  knows  about  it  all — He  knows — He  knows! 

With  Earth's  first  Clay  They  did  the  Last  Man  knead, 
And  then  of  the  Last  Harvest  sow'd  the  Seed  ; 

Yea,  the  first  Morning  of  Creation  wrote 
What  the  Last  Dawn  of  Reckoning  shall  read. 

Oh,  Thou,  who  Man  of  baser  Earth  didst  make, 
And  who  with  Eden  didst  devise  the  Snake; 

For  all  the  Sin  wherewith  the  Face  of  Man 
Is  blacken'd,  Man's   Forgiveness  give — and  take! 


Duties. 


208    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

And  as  to  national  life,  Sell's  judgment  is  too 
temperate:  '^It  is  this  dark  fatalism  which,  what- 
ever the  Koran  may  teach  on  the  subject,  is  the 
ruling  principle  in  all  Moslem  communities.  It 
is  this  which  makes  all  Mohammedan  nations 
decay.  Careless  of  self-improvement,  heedless 
of  the  need  of  progress,  the  Moslem  nations,  still 
independent,  are  in  all  that  relates  to  the  higher 
aspects  of  intellectual  and  civilized  life,  far 
behind  the  nations  of  the  West." 
Five  3.    The  practical   duties  of   Islam  are   five.    (1) 

Practical  The  recital   of  the  Kalima  or  confession  of  faith 

in  the  short  form  already  given,  or  in  the  longer 
form,  such  as,  ''I  testify  that  there  is  no  deity 
but  God,  I  testify  to  His  unity  and  that  He  has 
no  partner;  I  testify  that  Mohammed  is  His 
servant  and  His  messenger."  The  short  con- 
fession embodies  the  very  spirit  of  Islam.  ''It 
has  led  everywhere  the  march  of  its  armies,  it 
has  rung  for  twelve  centuries  in  the  morning  air 
from  its  minarets,  it  has  been  passed  from  lijD  to 
lip,  as  no  other  word  has  ever  been  passed,  by 
thousands  of  millions  of  the  human  race." 

(2)  Namaz,  or  the  five  stated  periods  of  prayer, 
preceded  by  the  specified  ablutions  with  water, 
or  under  certain  circumstances,  with  sand.  Unless 
these  ablutions  are  made  with  absolute  precision 
and  the  prayer  offered  with  perfect  observance 
of  the  ritual,  the  whole  supplication  is  futile. 
The  hours  are  before  sunrise,  when  noon  is  past, 
midway  between  noon  and  sunset,  a   few  minutes 


MOHAMMEDANISM  209 

after  sunset,  and  between  sunset  and  midnight. 
They  must  all  be  in  Arabic.  A  Moslem  was 
excommunicated  in  India  for  saying  that  the 
prayers  might  be  in  Hindustani.  In  spite  of 
their  fatalism,  one  might  say  all  the  more  by 
reason  of  it,  the  Moslems  believe  in  prayer,  and 
they  pray  with  an  openness  and  sincerity  which 
puts   to   shame   many    Christian  peoples. 

(3)  Roza,  the  thirty  days  fast  of  Ramazan,  the 
month  in  the  Moslem  calendar  in  which  the 
Koran  was  sent  down  to  be  man's  guidance.  No 
part  of  Mohammedanism  gives  clearer  evidence 
of  the  sincerity  and  earnestness  of  Islam  than  this 
fast.  The  Moslem  calendar  is  not  solar,  as  ours 
is,  and  Ramazan  sometimes  falls  in  the  summer. 
Yet  for  the  whole  of  this  month,  even  in  the  hot- 
test weather,  all  Moslems  must  abstain  from  all 
food  and  all  liquid  from  sunrise  to  sunset.  There 
is,  of  course,  great  indulgence  at  night,  and  rich 
Moslems  simply  reverse  night  and  day,  sleeping 
during  the  day,  but  the  poor  cannot  do  this,  and 
the  pious  spend  the  month  in  studying  the  Koran 
and  in  prayer. 

(4)  Zakat,  or  almsgiving.  Every  Moslem  of 
full  age  must  give  a  proportion  of  his  wealth  each 
year  to  alms.  Two  and  a  half  per  cent  is  the 
common  percentage  required,  but  of  the  produce 
of  land  naturally  watered  one-tenth  is  due.  The 
Zakat  may  not  be  given  for  building  mosques,  or 
for  personal  expenses  or  to  set  a  slave  free,  or  to 
parents  or  children,  or  to  wife  or  husband,  or  to 
a   slave.      It   must   be   given   as  bona   fide   alms. 


210    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

The  duty  is  much  evaded,  but  the  principle  of 
ahnsgiving  is  ingrouiid  in  Moslems. 

(5)  The  Hajj,  or  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  The 
pilgrimage  must  be  made  by  every  free  Moham- 
medan who  is  sound  in  body  and  of  full  age,  when 
he  has  sufficient  means  to  pay  his  expenses,  after 
duly  providing  for  the  support  of  his  household 
till  his  return.  If  death  overtake  a  man  before 
he  has  made  the  pilgrimage,  he  is  accounted  a 
sinner.  This  pilgrimage  w^as  an  ancient  Arabian 
institution  which  Mohammed  took  over  as  a  uni- 
fying element  in  his  religion.  A  small  minority 
of  the  Mohammedans  of  the  world  have  ever 
made  the  Hajj.  Those  who  have  done  so  are 
exalted  persons  in  their  communities.  The  con- 
ditions under  which  the  pilgrimage  has  been 
made,  the  unhygienic  conditions  in  Mecca,  the 
common  drinking  from  the  well  Zem-zem,  the 
common  kissing  of  the  black  stone  in  the  Kaabah, 
the  temple  at  Mecca,  and  the  debauchery  of  many 
of  the  pilgrim  caravans,  have  made  Mecca  a  great 
danger  center,  but  the  religious  fervor  of  the 
rites  of  the  Hajj  and  the  unifying  influence  of 
this  central  gathering  of  the  Faithful,  have  justi- 
fied it  even  in  the  minds  of  Moslem  Modernists. 
TKe  Spread  o£  These  were  the  foundations,  the  doctrines  and 
MoKammed-  the  dutics  of  the  great  religious  force  which 
amsm.  gathered    in   Arabia  in   the  seventh    century  and, 

with  its  battle  cry  ^'Allah  Akhbar, "  ''God  is 
great,"  and  its  brief  but  mighty  creed,  ''There 
is  no  god  but  God,  and  Mohammed  is  the  Apostle 


MOHAMMEDANISM  '1\\ 

of  God, "  moved  out  upon  the  world.  Already  in 
Mohammed's  life  three  embassies  had  been  sent 
to  Heraclius,  the  Emperor  of  the  Greeks,  and  to 
the  Chosroes  Dynasty  of  Persia  to  summon  them 
to  Islam,  and  by  the  time  of  the  Prophet's  death 
his  power  was  paramount  through  Arabia. 
Much  remained  to  be  done,  however,  even  in  his 
own  land,  and  Abu  Bakr,  who  succeeded  him  as 
Khalif,  or  head  of  Islam,  and  who  was  a  just  and 
simple  man,  showed  great  ability  in  solidifying 
the  Moslem  power  in  Arabia,  as  well  as  in  ex- 
tending it  abroad.  The  latter  was  indeed  the 
chief  method  by  which  he  effected  the  former. 
The  seeds  of  tragedy  in  the  new  faith  bore  fruit 
in  the  violent  deaths  of  the  three  Khalifs  who 
succeeded  Abu  Bakr,  Omar,  Othman  and  Ali,  and 
never  from  its  origin  until  to-day  has  Islam 
known  unity  and  peace,  but  never  during  all  these 
centuries  has  it  ceased  to  spread.  Its  victorious 
arms  were  carried  into  Persia,  Syria  and  Egypt, 
and  then  across  Africa  into  Spain  and  France 
until  Charles  Martel  stopped  its  westward  march 
between  Poitiers  and  Tours  in  732,  and  across 
Asia  Minor  and  the  Hellespont  into  Eastern 
Europe  until  John  Sobieski  halted  it  at  Vienna 
in  1683;  across  Persia  into  Central  Asia  and 
India,  where  it  holds  its  own  to-day  with  more  of 
its  followers  under  the  British  King  than  it  has 
under  any  Moslem  governor;  across  the  roof  of 
the  world  the  new  faith  passed  into  China, 
where  there  are  over  five  million  Mohammedans; 


212   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

around  the  Southern  Seas  it  swept  to  the  East 
Indies  and  beyond;  and  lastly,  because  the 
movement  is  yet  going  on,  it  spread  southward 
and  is  spreading  still  among  the  tribes  of  the 
great  heart  of  Africa.  Its  impetuous  spirit  at  the 
outset  bade  fair  to  carry  it  wherever  a  warrior 
could  walk  or  ride  his  horse.  "Great  God," 
said  Akbah  as  he  spurred  his  horse  into  the  waves 
of  the  Atlantic,  after  victoriously  crossing  the 
entire  north  of  Africa,  "if  my  course  were  not 
stopped  by  this  sea,  I  would  still  go  on  to  the  un- 
known kingdom  of  the  West,  preaching  the  unity 
of  Thy  hoi)'  name,  and  putting  to  the  sword  the 
rebellious  nations  who  worship  any  other  gods 
than  Thee."  (Dods,  "Mohammed,  Buddha  and 
Christ,"  p.  102.  See  Haines  "Islam  as  a  Mis- 
sionary Religion.") 
Schism.  This     widespread     development     of     Moham- 

medanism has  not  come,  however,  without  deep- 
reaching  internal  schisms.  These  existed  in 
Mohammed's  time  and  they  multiplied  after  his 
death.  There  were  political  rivalries  and  theo- 
logical divisions,  and  Mohammed's  prediction 
has  come  true.  "The  Magians  are  divided  into 
seventy  sects, "  say  the  Mohammedans,  "the  Jews 
into  seventy-one,  the  Christians  into  seventy-two, 
and  the  Moslems  into  seventy-three,  as  Moham- 
med had  foretold."  The  first  great  breach  in 
Islam  arose  out  of  civil  war  between  AH,  the 
fourth  Khalif,  and  his  rival,  Muavia.  Ali  and 
his   two   sons   were   killed,    and   to   this   day   are 


MOHAMMEDANISM  213 

regarded  by  the  Shi  ah  sect  as  their  great  heroes 
and  martyrs^  while  they  look  upon  the  Sunnis,  or 
orthodox  Moslems,  as  scarcely  closer  to  them  than 
Christians.  The  Persian  Mohammedans  and 
some  of  the  Moslems  of  India  are  Shiahs.  The 
Shiahs  reject  the  first  three  Khalifs  as  usurpers 
of  All's  place;  they  even  prefer  All  to  Moham- 
med, or  at  least  esteem  them  equal ;  they  charge 
the  Sunnis  with  corrupting  the  Koran  and  reject 
the  Sunnat  or  Traditions  as  apocryphal  and 
unworthy  of  credit.  (Sale,  "Preliminary  Dis- 
course," Sec.  VIII.)  The  central  and  charac- 
teristic belief  of  the  Shiahs  is  their  faith  regard- 
ing the  Imam.  The  Shiahs  hold  that  "the  Imam 
is  the  successor  of  the  Prophet,  adorned  with  all 
the  qualities  which  he  possessed,  wiser  than  the 
most  learned  men  of  the  age,  holier  than  the  most 
pious;  free  from  all  sin,  original  and  active.  His 
authority  is  the  authority  of  God."  His  body  is 
so  pure  and  delicate  as  to  cast  no  shadow.  He  is 
the  supreme  pontiff,  the  vicar  of  God  on  earth. 
"The  Koran,  the  infallible  book,  is  plussed  by 
the  Imam,  the  infallible  man."  (Sell's  "Faith 
of  Islam,  pp.  76,  78.)  ^ 

On  this  doctrine  of  the  Imam  the  Shiahs  are  di-  The  Bab  anc 
vided  into  two  parties.  We  speak  of  them  because  Behaisim. 
they  also  serve  to  explain  modern  history  and  the 
movement  of  Christianity  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
The  Imamites  reckoning  Ali  as  the  first,  believe 
in  twelve  Imams,  the  last  of  whom,  Abul  Kasim, 
is   still    alive,    though    concealed,    and   bears   the 


214   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

name  of  Al  Mahdi,  ''the  guided."     The   Ismai- 
lians  believe  that  since  the  sixth  Imam,  the  Imams 
have  been  concealed.      The  Imam  is   in  existence 
now,  but  concealed.      There  are  always  those  who 
say,  "Next  year  the  Mahdi  will  appear. "      There 
is  fine  soil  in  this  belief  for  a  crojD  of  disturbances 
and  small   fanaticisms  of  which  we  have  not  seen 
the  last.      It  explains  many  things  about  Moslem 
lands,     and    makes    movements    like    the    Mahdi 
movement    in   the    Soudan   and    modern    Babism 
intelligible.      The  founder  of  Babism,  Mirza  Ali 
Mohammed,  the    Bab,  was   the   son   of   a   Shiraz 
grocer,  born  in  1819  or  1820.      His  manifestation 
as  a  prophet  was  in  1844  at   Bushire.      His  name 
of  Bab,  or  gate,  signified   his  claim  to  be  the  one 
through    whom   alone   knowledge   of   the   twelfth 
Imam  Mahdi  could  be  attained.      His  pretensions 
grew  apace  and  he  soon  advanced   himself  as   the 
Mahdi,  then   as   a   reincarnation  of  the   Prophet, 
then  as  a  Revelation  or  Incarnation  of  God  Him- 
self.     The  Bab  was  shot  at   Tabriz  in   1850,  and 
the   Babis,    his    followers,    removed   to    Bagdad. 
Thence  the   Turkish   Government  removed  them 
to  Constantinople  and  then  to  Adrianople  in  1866. 
One   of  them,   Mirza   Hussein  Ali,  or  Beha,  an- 
nounced  himself   as   the   Mahdi    whom  the    Bab 
had  foretold.      This  led  to  a  dissension  and  bloody 
schism,  ending  in   the  permanent   division  of  the 
Babis,  with  two  prophets,  Beha  at  Acre,  and  his 
younger   brother   at   Cyprus,    where   the    British 
Government   jDcnsioned    him.      The    influence   of 
Beha  prevailed    and   the   Babis   became   Behais, 


MOHAMMEDANISM  215 

The  movement  is  very  active  in  Persia  and  in 
modified  forms  has  found  its  way  to  the  West. 
The  present  head  is  Abbas  Effendi,  the  son  of 
Beha,  w^ho  is  a  man  of  piety  and  religious  ear- 
nestness. 

Behaism  represents  a  revolt  against  the  tyranny 
and  fanaticism  of  the  Koran  and  the  laxity 
of  Moslem  practice,  though  allowing  wine 
drinking  and  other  leniencies.  The  Bab  advo- 
cated also  the  removal  of  the  veil  by  women,  the 
disestablishment  of  the  harem,  and  war  against 
mendicancy.  Doctrinely  the  Beha  movement 
disjDlaces  Mohammed  and  the  Koran,  and  regards 
God  as  a  sj^iritual  essence  and  not  a  person.  In 
Persia  Behaism  is  a  mixture  of  Mohammedanism, 
Sufiism  and  Universalism.  In  the  West  it  takes 
various  forms.  Mr.  Kheiralla  was  for  a  time  the 
spokesman  of  the  view  that  Beha  was  the  incar- 
nation of  God  the  Father.  (Kheiralla,  ''Beha 
Ullah,  the  Glory  of  God.")  Abbas  Effendi, 
however,  claims  to  be  no  more  than  a  man,  the 
teacher  of  the  principle  of  religious  unity,  and 
those  who  have  visited  him  at  Acre  have  come 
away  with  a  high  regard  for  him.  The  utterances 
of  Behaism  which  are  making  appeal  in  America 
now  are  well  illustrated  by  such  quotations  as 
these  from  ''Hidden  Words,"  published  from 
"The  Supreme  Pen"  of  Beha,  by  the  Behai 
Publishing  vSociety  of  Chicago: — 

IN  THE  NAME  OF  THE  MIGHTY  SPEAKER  ! 

O  ye  possessors  of  intelligence  and  hearing,  the  first 
rnelody  of  the  Beloved  is  :  O  nightingale  of  Significance^ 


216   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

seek  no  refuge  save  in  the  rose  garden  of  significances ! 
O  messenger  of  the  Solomon  of  Love,  dwell  not  but  in 
the  Sheba  of  the  Beloved!  O  phoenix  of  Immortality, 
choose  no  abode  except  in  the  Mount  of  Faithfulness! 
This  is  thy  station  if  thou  art  soaring  to  the  Placeless 
on  the  wings  of  Life. 

O  PEOPLE  OF  THE  DELECTABLE  PARADISE ! 

Let  the  people  of  Certainty  know  that  a  new  Garden 
has  appeared  near  the  Rizwan  in  the  Open  Court  of 
Holiness,  and  that  all  the  people  of  the  Heights,  and  the 
temples  of  the  Exalted  Heaven,  are  around  it.  There- 
fore endeavor  to  reach  that  Station,  and  discover  the 
truths  of  the  mystery  of  Love  from  its  red  tulips,  and 
unveil  abundant  knowledge  of  the  Oneness  from  its 
eternal  fruits.  Radiant  are  the  eyes  of  him  who  has 
entered  therein  with  trust. 

To  make  any  impress  upon   the   Western  mind 
Behaism  will  have  to  draw  much  nearer  to  reality. 
Sufiism  and  Of  the  many  other  develojoments  in  Islam,  the 

Wahabism.  two  most  important  were  Sufiism  and  Wahabism. 
The  former  is  the  mystical  reaction  from  the 
mechanical  conception  of  God.  It  was,  as  Dr. 
Shedd  says,  ''a  protest  against  the  exclusiveness 
of  Islam,  its  literalism,  its  legalism,  and  the  bare 
transcendence  of  its  conception  of  God.  It  em- 
phasizes over  against  these  the  truth  of  all  reli- 
gions (one  God  manifesting  himself  in  many 
ways),  the  mystical  interpretation  of  sacred  books, 
the  spiritualizing  of  the  law,  and  even  its  prac- 
tical abrogation  for  those  who  reach  a  certain 
height  of  spiritual  culture,  and  the  divine  in- 
dwelling in  the  prophets,  in  the  Imams,  and  even 
in  lesser  leaders."  (Report  of  Commission  IV, 
World  Missionary  Conference,    Ch.  V.) 


MOHAMMEDANISM  217 

Omar  Khayyam's  Rubaiyat  are  the  utterances  of 
the  Persian  reaction  from  this  reaction.  After 
the  fatalism  and  pantheism  of  Islam  and  Sufiism, 
there  were  left  only  such  sensual  pleasures  as  life 
might  hold: — 

There  was  a  door  to  which  I  found  no  key; 
There  was  a  veil  past  which  I  could  not  see : 

Some  little  talk  of  Me  and  Thee 
There  seemed — and  then  no  more  of  Thee  and  Me. 
One  moment  in  annihilation's  waste, 
One  moment,  of  the  well  of  life  to  taste — 

The  stars  are  setting  and  the  Caravan 
Starts  for  the  dawn  of  nothing — oh,  make  haste ! 
Ah,  fill  the  cup :  what  boots  it  to  repeat 
How  Time  is  slipping  underneath  our  feet: 

Unborn  To-morrow,  and  dead  Yesterday, 
Why  fret  about  them  if  To-day  be  sweet. 

The  Wahabis  are  Mohammedan  Puritans. 
They  reject  Ijma  after  the  death  of  the  Compan- 
ions of  the  Prophet,  hold  to  the  right  of  private 
judgment  of  the  Koran  and  the  Traditions,  call 
themselves  ' 'Unitarians"  and  denounce  all  others 
as  polytheists,  reject  all  saint  worship  even  at 
Mohammed's  tomb  at  Medina,  renounce  rosaries 
for  the  repetition  of  the  ninety-nine  names  of 
God,  and  at  one  time  in  their  history,  toward  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  seemed  about  to 
subdue  and  reform  the  whole  Moslem  world, 
restoring  the  order  of  the  primitive  days. 
(Hughes,  ''Dictionary  of  Islam."  Art.  "Wahabi," 
pp.  659-662.)  Besides  these  divisions  of  Islam 
there  are  many  others.  Mohammedanism  is  very 
far,    accordingly,    from    being   the  unity   that    is 


218   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

often  supposed.  "In  no  part  of  the  world,"  says 
Palgrave,  "is  there  more  of  secret  division, 
aversion,  misbelief  (taking  Mohammedanism  as 
our  standard)  and  unbelief,  than  in  those  very 
lands  which  to  a  superficial  survey  seem  absolutely 
identified  in  the  one  common  creed  of  the  Quran 
and  its  author."  (Palgrave,  "Arabia,"  Vol.  1, 
p.  10.) 
Moral  Effects  These  are  not  the  only  lamentable  moral  effects 
of  MoKam-  of  Islam.  Religions,  like  men,  must  be  judged 
medanism.  j^y  their  fruits,  and  the  fruits  of  Mohammedanism 
condemn  the  tree  which  bear  them.  It  is  some- 
times said  that  Mohammedanism  is  unjustly 
judged  when  tested  in  this  way,  that  it  was  a 
great  advance  ujDon  the  conditions  which  preceded 
it  in  Arabia,  and  that  for  certain  races  and  stages 
of  human  development  it  is,  if  not  ideally  better 
than  Christianity,  yet  more  practically  suitable. 
To  this  it  is  to  be  replied,  first,  that  while  Mo- 
hammedanism may  have  improved  conditions  in 
Arabia,  there  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion; 
secondly,  that  the  conditions  it  introduced,  if 
better  than  those  which  preceded  them,  stopped 
any  further  progress,  as  they  stop  it  now  wherever 
they  come  to  prevail ;  and  thirdly,  that  the  ethical 
and  social  ideals  of  Mohammedanism  are  inade- 
quate and  injurious. 
Did  {t  The  moral    code  of  Islam  and   its  clean   mono- 

Improve  thcisni  represented   an    immense   advance    on   the 

Arabia?  conditions   prevalent    in   Arabia   when    it   arose. 

The    great    vices    of    the    Arabs    were    revenge, 


Eiijh^- 


MOHAMMEDANISM  219 

drunkenness,    gambling-,     infanticide,     polygamy   \J/ 
and    divorce,    insecurity    of    property,  and   fetish      /  f 

worship    and    idolatry.       Mohammed    dealt  with     /  | 

all  these,  establishing  order  and  justice  and  se- 
curity, and  prohibiting  all  evils  save  polygamy, 
which  he  limited,  and  divorce.  It  seems  fair  to 
accept  the  traditional  view  that  the  conditions 
which  he  introduced  were  better  than  those  which    /  / 

had  prevailed.  But  the  evidence  against  thi 
view  is  heavy.  "Fresnel  has  shown  that  the  pi 
Islamic  Arabs  were  on  a  higher  moral  plane 
than  the  Arabs  after  their  conversion  of  Islam; 
and  Perron  contrasts  the  freedom  and  the  legal 
status  of  woman  prior  to  Mohammed  with  her 
servile  condition  under  Islam."  (Zwemer,  "Is- 
lam," p.  3.)  As  to  women's  position,  also,  Rob- 
ertson Smith  says,  "It  is  very  remarkable  that,  in 
spite'of  Mohammed'shumane  ordinances,  theplace 
of  women  in  the  family,  and  in  society,  has  steadily 
declined  under  his  law.  In  ancient  Arabia  we 
find  many  proofs  that  women  moved  more  freely 
and  asserted  themselves  m2)re  strongly  than  in  the 
modern  East.  The  Arabs  themselves  recognized 
that  the  position  of  woman  had  fallen,  and  it  con- 
tinued still  to  fall  under  Islam."  ("Kinship  and 
Marriage  in  Early  Arabia,"  pp.  100-104.)  And 
Sir  William  Muir  says  in  his  Life  of  Moham- 
med, "I  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  wife  was 
possessed  of  more  freedom  and  exercised  a  greater, 
healthier  and  more  legitimate  influence  under  the 
pre-existing   institutions  of   Arabia"  than   under 


meaanism. 


220    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

Mohammedanism.  The  relations  of  Mohammed 
and  Khadijah,  when  Mohammed  was  only  a 
monotheistic  Arab  in  Mecca,  were  far  nobler  than 
the  Prophet's  relations  to  his  ten  wives  and  four 
concubines  at  Medina. 
Tke  Petrify-  Even  if  the  conditions  introduced  by  Islam 
ing  Influence  were  better  for  the  Arabia  of  the  seventh  century 
of  Moham-  than  the  conditions  it  had  previously  known,  the 
weakness  and  curse  of  the  system  lies  in  its  erec- 
tion of  these  conditions  w^iich  were  imposed 
upon  seventh  century  Arabia  into  universal  and 
eternal  institutions.  As  Stobart  says,  "While 
forming  a  correct  judgment  of  the  moral  condi- 
tion of  Arabia  at  the  time  when  he  arose,  and 
estimating  at  their  true  value  the  benefits  he  con- 
ferred, we  must  not  neglect  to  keep  before  our 
eyes  the  clear  distinction  which  exists  between 
evil  and  degrading  practices,  which  are  open  to 
reform,  and  an  imperfect,  if  not  vicious  law,  in- 
tended to  be  the  permanent  standard  of  good  and 
evil.  The  former  can  be  successfully  attacked  by 
the  influence  of  better  example,  and  will  dis- 
appear before  a  truer  and  higher  civilization; 
but  an  evil  code  of  ethics,  enjoined  by  the 
national  faith,  and  accepted,  by  its  appeal  to  a 
divine  origin,  as  the  final  and  irrevocable  standard 
of  morality,  presents  an  insuperable  barrier  to 
the  regeneration  and  progress  of  a  nation.  Yet 
such  is  the  position  which  the  Koran  has  taken." 
(Stobart,  "Islam  and  Its  Founder,"  p.  229.) 
Mohammedanism  has  bound  Arabia  and   it  binds 


MOHAMMEDANISM  221 

every  Mohammedan  peoj^le  to  a  political  and 
social  order  and  to  ethical  ideals  which,  even 
supposing  them  to  have  been  well  adapted  to  the 
time  which  originated  them,  are  now  fourteen 
centuries  out  of  date.  It  is  this  thought  which 
prompts  Lord  Houghton's  verse: — 

So  while  the  world  rolls  on  from  change  to  change, 

And  realms  of  thought  expand, 
The  Letter  stands  without  expanse  or  range, 

Stiff  as  a  dead  man's  hand. 

Inconsequence,  wherever  Mohammedanism  has-^*^ 
gone  it  has  advanced  the  people  whom  it  has 
vanquished  to  the  level  of  seventh  century 
Arabian  civilization,  but  here  or  a  little  beyond 
here  where  races  were  strong,  or  a  little  short  of 
here  where  races  were  weak,  it  has  left  its  fol- 
lowers. Further  progress  has  been  permanently 
estopped  except  at  the  price  of  infidelity  to  Islam. 
It  has  possessed  no  power  of  assimilation  or 
transformation.  (Shedd,  "Islam  and  the  Oriental 
Churches,"  p.  88). 

It  is  the  Mohammedan  religion  itself  that  is  the  -^  "^ 
chief  cause  of  political  sterility  and  degradation. 
It  has  made  and  in  making  has  unmade  the  char- 
acter of  good  people.  "The  fact  is,"  says  a 
thoughtful  writer  on  Persia,  "that  Islam  has 
ruined  Persia;  and  it  is  not  fair  to  the  real  char- 
acter of  the  people  to  underrate  the  effect  that 
their  religion  has  produced  on  them. ' '  (Malcolm, 
"Five  Years  in  a  Persian  Town,"  p.  112.) 


222  THE  LIGHT  OP  THE  WORLD 


Motam- 
medanism 
Morally- 
Defective. 
Polygamy. 


And  Islam  itself  is  to  be  held  responsible 
because  its  ethical  and  social  ideals  are  inade- 
quate and  injurious.  The  single  case  of  its  con- 
ceptions and  legislation  with  regard  to  woman 
will  suffice  for  illustration.  It  allowed  limited 
polygamy,  unlimited  concubinage,  and  practically 
unlimited  divorce.  These  are  the  provisions  of 
the  Koran: — 

And  if  ye  fear  that  ye  shall  not  act  with  equity 
towards  orphans  of  the  female  sex,  take  in  marriage  of 
such  other  women  as  please  you,  two,  or  three,  or 
four,  and  not  more.  But  if  ye  fear  that  ye  cannot  act 
equitably  towards  so  many,  marry  one  only,  or  the 
slaves  which  ye  shall  have  acquired. 

And  who  abstain  from  the  carnal  knowledge  of 
women  other  than  their  wives,  or  the  slaves  which  their 
right  hands  possess  (for  as  to  them  they  shall  be  blame- 
less ;  but  whoever  coveteth  any  women  besides  these, 
they  are  transgressors.) 

Ye  may  divorce  your  wives  twice ;  and  then  either 
retain  them  with  humanity,  or  dismiss  them  with 
kindness.  But  it  is  not  lawful  for  you  to  take  away 
anything  of  what  ye  have  given  them,  unless  both  fear 
that  they  cannot  observe  the  ordinances  of  God.  And 
if  ye  fear  that  they  cannot  observe  the  ordinances  of 
God,  it  shall  be  no  crime  in  either  of  them  on  account 
of  that  for  which  the  wife  shall  redeem  herself.  These 
are  the  ordinances  of  God ;  therefore  transgress  them 
not;  for  whoever  transgresseth  the  ordinances  of  God, 
they  are  unjust  doers.  But  if  the  husband  divorce  her  a 
third  time,  she  shall  not  be  lawful  for  him  again,  until 
she  marry  another  husband.  But  if  he  also  divorce  her, 
it  shall  be  no  crime  in  them,  if  they  return  to  each 
other,  if  they  think  they  can  observe  the  ordinances  of 
God  ;  and  these  are  the  ordinances  of  God,  he  declareth 
them  to  people  of  understanding. 


MOHAMMEDANISM  223 

Ameer  Ali,  Syed,  represents  the  modern  atti- 
tude of  Moslem  thought  toward  these  pro- 
visions:— 

Women,  to  whom  most  of  the  older  systems  assigned 
a  very  inferior  position  in  relation  to  the  stronger  sex, 
obtained  in  Islam  the  place  God  meant  them  to  occupy 
in  the  economy  of  creation.  The  right  of  possessing 
property,  of  dealing  with  what  was  their  own,  of  exer- 
cising all  the  privileges  and  powers  which  belonged  to 
them  as  sentient  beings,  were  accorded  to  them  equally 
with  the  other  sex.  Marriage  made  no  difference  in 
their  status  or  capacity.  And  a  Mussulman  wife  became 
as  competent  to  hold  property  and  make  dispositions 
as  a  single  woman.  Nor  were  they  denied  a  share  in 
the  patrimony  of  their  parents  or  kinsfolk  in  favor  of 
their  male  relations.  Marriage  Avas  declared  "to  be  an 
institution  ordained  for  the  protection  of  society,  and 
in  order  that  human  beings  may  guard  themselves  from 
foulness  and  unchastity." 

Polygamy  was  recognized  as  lawful  among  all  the 
nations  of  antiquity ;  and  its  practice  had  received  the 
sanction  of  the  holy  personages  of  Judaism.  As  among 
the  Kulin  Brahmins,  the  Pagan  Arabs  put  no  limit  on 
the  number  of  wives  a  man  might  have.  In  certain 
stages  of  development  polygamy  is  not  an  evil.  The 
Arabian  Prophet,  with  a  true  conception  of  the  social 
and  moral  conditions  and  necessities  of  the  age  and  the 
people,  dealt  with  the  question  in  a  manner  which  har- 
monizes with  the  most  advanced  standard,  and  at  the 
same  time  meets  the  needs  and  requirements  of  the  least 
progressed. 

A  Mussulman  is  allowed  to  marry  one,  two,  three  or 
four  wives,  provided  he  can  deal  with  all  of  them  "with 
equity."     If  that  be  not  possible  he  can  marry  but  one. 

Many  of  the  best  minds  of  Islam  have  perceived  in 
this  rule  a  virtual  prohibition  of  polygamy.  The  moral 
effect  of  the  institution  on  Mussulman  society  as  a  whole 


'2M    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

can  hardly  be  ignored ;  it  has  prevented  the  growth  in 
Mussuhnan  countries,  untainted  by  foreign  social  ideas, 
of  that  class  whose  existence  is  alike  an  outrage  on  our 
humanity  and  a  disgrace  to  civilization.  Considering 
how  the  profession  of  the  hetairai,  honored  among 
some  nations,  despised  among  others,  but  tolerated  by 
most,  has  flourished  through  all  ages,  it  is  no  small 
credit  to  the  Arabian  Teacher  that  it  was  so  effectually 
stopped  in  Islam. 

As  in  the  Jewish  system,  option  was  given  to  the 
husband  to  dissolve  the  marriage  tie.  At  the  same 
time,  the  act  was  pronounced  to  be  "the  most  abom- 
inable in  the  sight  of  the  Lord."  (Ameer  Ali,  Syed, 
''Islam,"  pp.  29-31.) 

On  the  other  hand  must  be  set  the  terrible  facts 
of  the  actual  conditions  prevalent  under  Islam. 
There  is  prostitution  there  as  we  know  it  in  the 
West,  and  the  whole  lot  of  woman  is,  though  with 
many  noble  and  worthy  exceptions,  a  degraded 
lot.      Of  polygamy  Sir  William  Muir  says: — 

Polygamy,  with  the  barbarous  institution  of  servile 
concubinage,  is  the  worm  at  the  root  of  Islam — the 
secret  of  its  decadence.  By  it  the  purity  and  virtue  of 
the  family  tie  are  touched  ;  the  tone  and  vigor  of  the 
dominant  classes  are  sapped  ;  the  body  politic  becomes 
weak  and  languid,  excepting  for  intrigue  ;  and  the  state 
itself  too  often  crumbles  to  pieces,  the  prey  of  a  doubt- 
ful and  contested  succession.  Offspring  born  by  the 
slave  to  her  proper  lord  and  master  is  legitimate,  and, 
as  such,  shares  in  the  inheritance ;  but  the  provision, 
praiseworthy  in  itself,  affords  but  an  additional  ground 
for  division  in  the  house. 

Of  concubinage  Stanley  Lane  Poole  testifies: — 

It  is  not  so  much  in  the  matter  of  wives  as  in  that  of 
concubines  that  Mohammed  made  an  irretrievable  mis- 
take.    The  condition  of   the    female  slave  in  the  East  is 


MOHAMMEDANISM  225 

indeed  deplorable.  She  is  at  the  entire  mercy  of  her 
master,  who  can  do  what  he  pleases  with  her  and  her 
companions;  for  the  Moslem  is  not  restricted  in  the 
number  of  his  concubines,  as  he  is  in  that  of  his  wives. 
The  female  white  slave  is  kept  solely  for  the  master's 
sensual  gratification,  and  is  sold  when  he  is  tired  of  her, 
and  so  she  passes  from  master  to  master,  a  very  wreck 
of  womanhood.  Her  condition  is  a  little  improved  if 
she  bear  a  son  to  her  tyrant ;  but  even  then  he  is  at 
liberty  to  refuse  to  acknowledge  the  child  as  his  own, 
though  it  must  be  owned  he  seldom  does  this.  Kind  as 
the  Prophet  was  himself  towards  bondswomen,  one 
cannot  forget  the  imutterable  brutalities  which  he 
suffered  his  followers  to  inflict  upon  conquered  nations 
in  the  taking  of  slaves.  The  Moslem  soldier  was 
allowed  to  do  as  he  pleased  with  any  ''infidel"  woman 
he  might  meet  with  in  his  victorious  march.  When  one 
thinks  of  the  thousands  of  women,  mothers  and 
daughters,  who  must  have  suffered  shame  and  dishonor 
by  this  license,  he  cannot  find  words  to  express  his 
horror.  And  this  cruel  indulgence  has  left  its  mark  on 
the  Moslem  character,  nay,  on  the  whole  character  of 
Eastern  life. 

And  of  the  seclusion  of  women  Keene,  in  ''The 
Turks  in  India,"  says: — 

All  Zenana  life  must  be  bad  for  men  at  all  stages  of 
their  existence.  In  youth,  it  must  be  ruin  to  be  petted 
and  spoiled  by  a  company  of  submissive  slave  girls.  In 
manhood,  it  is  no  less  an  evil  that  when  a  man  enters 
into  private  life,  his  affections  should  be  put  up  to 
auction  among  foolish,  fond  competitors,  full  of  mutual 
jealousies  and  slanders.  We  are  not  left  entirely  to 
conjecture  as  to  the  effect  of  female  influence  in  home 
life,  when  it  is  exerted  under  those  unenlightened  and 
demoralizing  conditions.  That  is,  plainly,  an  element 
lying  at  the  root  of  all  the  most  important  features  that 
differentiate  progress  from  stagnation. 


226    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 


Dn 


Intolf 


But  worst  of  all,  perhaps,  in  its  actual  effects, 
is  the  liberty  of  divorce.  Most  Moslems  are  too 
poor  to  have  more  than  one  wife  at  a  time,  but 
the  facility  of  divorce  has  made  consecutive 
polygamy  so  easy  and  common  that  it,  rather 
than  honorable  monogamy,  sets  the  tone  to  Moslem 
life.  Hasan,  the  son  of  Ali,  was  called  the 
Divorcer  because  he  divorced  his  wives  seventy 
times.  There  are  theoretical  safeguards  around 
the  right  of  divorce,  but  they  are  ineffectual. 
The  Moslem  ideal  of  woman  is  inadequate  and 
injurious. 

This  illustration  would  suffice,  but  we  must 
add  to  it  the  Moslem  ideal  of  tolerance  and  free- 
dom. Islam  has  devised  working  arrangements 
which  have  made  life  under  Mohammedanism 
endurable,  but  barely  endurable  for  non-Moslem 
peoples.  The  idea  of  religious  equality  before 
the  law  is  alien  to  the  system.  (Shedd,  ^ 'Islam 
and  the  Oriental  Churches, "  pp.  134-137.)  It 
offered  men  Islam  or  tribute  or  death.  It  started 
out  to  convert  the  world  and  to  do  it  by  force.  It 
is  true  that  at  the  beofinninsr,  when  it  was  weak 
and  Mohammed  was  still  the  religious  teacher 
rather  than  the  political  chief,  the  note  of  tol- 
erance was  in  Islam,  as  the  early  chapters  of  the 
Koran  indicate: — 

Let  there  be  no  compulsion  in  religion. 

Verily  they  who  believe  (Moslems)  and  they  who 
follow  the  Jewish  religion  and  the  Christians  and  the 
Sabians — whosoever  of  these  believeth  in  God  and  the 
last  day  and  doeth  that  which  is  right^  shall    have    their 


MOHAMMEDANISM  227 

reward  with  their  Lord  :  fear  shall  not  come  upon  them, 
neither  shall  they  be  grieved. 

Dispute  not,  unless  in  kindliest  sort,  with  the  people 
of  the  Book  (Christians). 

But  as  success  came  and  power  grew,  a  differ- 
ent tone  came  into  Islam.  New  revelations  in  the 
Koran  abrogated  the  earlier  ones. 

Whoso  desireth  any  other  religion  than  Islam  it  shall 
not  be  accepted  of  him  and  in  the  next  world  he  shall 
be  of  those  who  perish. 

O  ye  who  believe,  take  not  the  Jews  and  Christians 
as  your  friends. 

And  when  the  months  wherein  ye  are  not  allowed  to 
attack  them  shall  be  past,  kill  the  idolaters  wheresoever 
ye  shall  find  them,  and  take  them  prisoners,  and  besiege 
them,  and  lay  wait  for  them  in  every  convenient  place. 
But  if  they  shall  repent,  and  observe  the  appointed 
times  of  prayer,  and  pay  the  legal  alms,  dismiss  them 
freely;  for  God  is  gracious  and  merciful. 

O  prophet,  wage  war  against  the  unbelievers  and  the 
hypocrites,  and  be  severe  unto  them,  for  their  dwelling 
shall  be  hell ;  an  vmhappy  journey  shall  it  be  thither. 

When  ye  encounter  the  unbelievers,  strike  off  their 
heads,  until  ye  have  made  a  great  slaughter  among 
them ;  and  bind  them  in  bonds  :  and  either  give  them  a 
free  dismission  afterwards  or  exact  a  ransom  ;  until  the 
war  shall  have  laid  down  its  arms. 

Whatever  abatements  need  to  be  made  from  the 
severity  of  these  passages  in  judging  the  actual 
attitude  of  Islam,  it  remains  true  that  it  has  been 
and  is  the  most  intolerant  of  all  religfions.  It  is 
the  one  religion  with  which  apostacy  has  meant 
and  still  means  death,  wherever  the  power  is  in 
its  hands.  It  cannot  allow,  save  under  coercion 
from   without,    the   freedom   that    is   essential    to 


228    THE  LIGH7'  OP  THE  WORLD 

faith.  As  a  high  Turkish  official  told  Dr.  Barton 
in  reply  to  the  question,  "How  about  liberty  for 
the  Mohammedan  to  become  a  Christian?" — 
^*'That  is  an  impossibility  in  the  nature  of  the 
case.  When  one  has  once  accepted  Islam  and 
become  a  follower  of  the  Prophet  he  cannot 
change.  There  is  no  power  on  earth  that  can 
change  him.  Whatever  he  may  say  or  claim 
cannot  alter  the  fact  that  he  is  a  Moslem  still  and 
must  always  be  such.  It  is,  therefore,  an  absurd- 
ity to  say  that  a  Moslem  has  the  privilege  of 
changing  his  religion,  for  to  do  so  is  beyond  his 
power."  (Barton,  "Daybreak  in  Turkey,"  p. 
256  f.) 
Otlier  There   are   radical   defects    in  the    ethical    and 

Defects.  social  principles  of  Islam.      The  taint  of  jDagan- 

ism  which  was  in  the  system  dowered  it  with  the 
law  of  social  unprogression.  There  was  no  con- 
ception in  it  of  the  permanency  of  the  moral  law. 
(Malcolm,  "Five  Years  in  a  Persian  Town,"  p. 
82.)  The  Pro^ohet's  whole  idea  of  revelation 
was  arbitrary  and  non-ethical.  God  was  strong. 
His  will  was  above  His  goodness.  Love  did  not 
rule  His  will.  It  was  enough  that  Pie  willed. 
The  want  of  a  consuming  sense  of  holiness  in  God 
left  ethics  without  the  sense  of  sin.  In  the 
Mishkat  we  are  told: — 

The  Prophet  said,  ''Verily  a  certain  servant  (of  God) 
committed  a  grievous  sin  and  said^  O  my  Lord,  I  have 
sinned ;  forgive  it.  His  Lord  said,  Doth  mj  servant 
know  that  he  hath  a  Lord  who  forgives  the  sins  and  also 
punishes.     I    have    forgiven    my    servant.     Afterwards 


MOHAMMEDANISM  229 

he  delayed  as  God  wished,  and  then  again  he  sinned 
a  grievous  sin  and  said,  O  mj  Lord,  I  have  sinned 
grievously  ;  forgive  it.  He  said.  Doth  my  servant  know 
that  he  hath  a  Lord  who  forgives  the  sins  and  also 
punishes  ;  I  have  forgiven  my  servant.  Then  he  delayed 
as  God  wished  and  again  sinned  grievously  and  said,  O 
Lord,  I  have  sinned  grievously  again  ;  forgive  it  for  me. 
Then  He  said.  Doth  my  servant  know  that  he  hath  a 
Lord  who  forgives  the  sins  and  punishes  them  ;  I  have 
forgiven  my  servant ;  therefore  let  him  do  what  he 
likes!" 

Here,  then,  we  are  brought  face  to  face  with  Contrast 
the  contrasts  between  Islam  and  Christianity.  Between 
The  fundamental  contrast  is  in  their  conception  ^^lam  and 
of  God. }(  Mohammed  saw  and  emphasized  a  few  ns^  "^  ^*°^  ^" 
of  the  true  attributes  of  God,  but  his  God  was  a 
ruler,  a  sovereign,  not  a  Father.  His  religion, 
accordingly,  made  no  provision  for  the  soul's 
need  of  fellowship  with  God.  (Grant,  ^^Reli- 
gions of  the  World,  "  p.  30.)  He  did  not  realize 
the  holiness  of  God.  The  whole  conception  of 
ethical  character  was  strange  to  him.  There  was 
in  him,  accordingly,  none  of  the  moral  splendor, 
the  ethical  righteousness  of  the  Hebrew  prophets, 
far  less  of  the  apostles  of  Christianity.  The 
Mohammedan  idea  of  God,  moreover,  really 
separated  him  from  man  and  the  world.  That 
was  why  on  one  hand  Sufiism  arose  to  satisfy 
with  its  pantheism  the  hunger  of  the  soul  for  God, 
and  on  the  other  hand  it  accounted  for  Moslem 
agnosticism  and  the  cynical  atheism  of  Omar 
KhayyamT^  This  ideal  of  God,  furthermore,  made 


230       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

the  conceptions  of  Incarnation  and  atonement 
impossible  in  Islam.  ("Religions  of  the  Mission 
Fields,"  ''Mohammedanism,"  p.  256  f.)  The 
new  religion  did  proclaim  a  real  brotherhood  and 
the  noble  equalities  of  Mohammedanism  have  been 
a  great  reality  and  are  a  great  reproach  to  the  caste 
spirit,  whether  in  Hinduism  or  in  Christian 
societ}'.  But  Islam  knew  no  real  human  brother- 
hood. It  was  a  fellowship  in  Islam,  which 
utterly  denied  the  truth  of  human  unity,  of  one 
common  world  family  of  God.Yf\.Two  prayers 
illustrate  the  fundamental  difference  between 
Moslems  and  Christians  at  this  point: — 

Prayer  of  Christians  for  Moslems,  used  on  Good 
Friday  at  Church:  ''O  merciful  God,  have  mercy 
on  all  Mohammedans,  and  take  from  them  all 
ignorance,  hardness  of  heart  and  contempt  of  Thy 
Word ;  and  fetch  them  home,  blessed  Lord,  to  Thy 
flock  that  they  may  be  saved  among  the  remnant  of 
the  true  Israelites,  and  be  made  one  fold  under  one 
Shepherd,  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord.     Amen." 

Prayer  of  Moslems  for  Christians,  used  every 
Friday  in  the  Mosques:  ''God,  make  their  waives 
widows  and  their  children  orphans,  and  give  their 
possessions  to  be  a  jDOssession  of  the  followers  of 
Islam.      Amen." 

Mohammedanism  was  and  Is  a  religion  of  pre- 

/6epts  and  precedents,  and  not  of  living  princijDles. 

Its    conception   of   all   revelation    Is   mechanical. 

("Methods  of  Mission  Work  Among  Moslems," 

p.    196   f.)      Christ    refused    to   bind   men  with 


MOHAMMEDANISM  231 

prescriptions.  His  method  was  to  give  men 
principles  which  they  were  to  apply,  to  pour  a 
new  life  into  their  veins  which  w^ould  make  them 
sons  of  God  and  lead  them  to  render  to  Him  and 
to  their  brothers  the  service  of  sons  and  not  of 
slaves.      Here  alone  we  find  an  adequate  and  ever 


sep 


aratine  contrast  between  the  two  religions : — 


fc>' 


While  as  the  liffe  blood  fills  the  growing  form, 

The  Spirit  Christ  has  shed 
Flows  through  the  ripening  ages  fresh  and  warm, 

More  felt  than  heard  or  read. 

And,  therefore,  though  ancestral  sympathies, 

And  closest  ties  of  race. 
May  guard  Mohammed's  precepts  and  decrees 

Through  many  a  tract  of  space ; 

Yet  in  the  end  the  tight-drawn  line  must  break, 

The  sapless  tree  must  fall, 
Nor  let  the  form  one  time  did  well  to  take 

Be  tyrant  over  all. 

The  whole  wonderfid  contrast  appears  when 
we  set  Mohammed  over  against  Christ  and  lay 
down  the  religion  which  centers  in  Christ  upon 
Islam.  As  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith  declares,  who  is 
saying  the  best  that  can  be  said  for  Moham- 
medanism:— 

The  religion  of  Christ  contains  whole  fields  of 
morality  and  whole  realms  of  thought  which  are  all  but 
outside  the  religion  of  Mohammed.  It  opens  humility, 
purity  of  heart,  forgiveness  of  injuries,  sacrifice  of  self 
to  man's  moral  nature;  it  gives' scope  for  toleration, 
development,  boundless  progress  to  his  mind  ;  its  motive 
power  is  stronger,  even  as  a  friend  is  better  than  a  king, 
and  love  higher  than  obedience.     Its  realized   ideals   in 


232       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

the  various  paths  of  human  greatness  have  been  more 
commanding,  more  manj-sided,  more  holj,  as  Averroes 
is  below  Newton,  Harun  below  Alfred,  and  Ali  below 
St.  Paul.  Finally,  the  ideal  life  of  all  is  far  more 
elevating,  far  more  majestic,  far  more  inspiring,  even 
as  the  life  of  the  founder  of  Mohammedanism  is  below 
the  life  of  the  Founder  of  Christianity.  And  when  I 
speak  of  the  ideal  life  of  Mohammedanism  I  must  not 
be  misunderstood.  There  is  in  Mohammedanism  no 
ideal  life  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  for  Moham- 
med's character  was  admitted  by  himself  to  be  a  weak 
and  erring  one.  It  was  disfigured  by  at  least  one  huge 
moral  blemish;  and  exactly  in  so  far  as  his  life  has, 
in  spite  of  his  earnest  and  reiterated  protestations,  been 
made  an  example  to  be  followed,  has  that  vice  been 
perpetuated.  But  in  Christianity  the  case  is  different. 
The  words,  ''Which  of  you  convinceth  me  of  sin?" 
forced  from  the  mouth  of  Him  who  was  meek  and 
lowly  of  heart,  by  the  wickedness  of  those  who,  priding 
themselves  on  being  Abraham's  children,  never  did  the 
works  of  Abraham,  are  a  definite  challenge  to  the 
world.  That  challenge  has  been  for  nineteen  centuries 
before  the  eyes  of  unfriendly,  as  well  as  of  believing 
readers,  and  it  has  never  yet  been  fairly  met ;  and  at 
this  moment,  by  the  confession  of  friend  and  foe  alike, 
the  character  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  stands  alone  in  its 
spotless  purity  and  its  unapproachable  majesty.  We 
have  each  of  us  probably  at  some  period  of  our  lives 
tried  hard  to  penetrate  to  the  inmost  meaning  of  some 
one  of  Christ's  short  and  weighty  utterances, ^ — 
''Those  jewels,  five  words  long. 

Which  on  the  stretched  forefinger  of  all  time 

Sparkle  forever." 

But  is    there  one  of  us  who  can  say    there  is  no  more 

behind?     Is  there  one  thoughtful    person  among  us  who 

has  ever  studied    the  character  of  Christ,  and    has    not, 

in  spite  of   ever-recurring   difficulties  and    doubts,  once 


MOHAMMEDANISM  2^^ 

and    again     burst    into     the    centurion's     exclamation, 
"Truly  this  was  the  Son  of  God"? 

Nor  are  the  methods  of  drawing  near  to  God  the 
same  in  the  two  religions.  The  Mussulman  gains  a 
knowledge  of  God — he  can  hardly  be  said  to  approach 
Him — by  listening  to  the  lofty  message  of  God's 
Prophet.  The  Christian  believes  that  he  approaches 
God  by  a  process  which,  however  difficult  it  may  be  to 
define,  yet  has  had  a  real  meaning  to  Christ's  servants, 
and  has  embodied  itself  in  countless  types  of  Christian 
character — that  mysterious  something  which  St.  Paul 
calls  a  "union  with  Christ."  "Ye  are  dead,  and  your 
life  is  hid  with  Christ  in  God."  (Smith,  "Mohammed 
and  Mohammedanism,"  pp.  247-249.) 

[jBut  if  Mohammedanism  and  Christianity  are  Points  of 
thus  widely  separated,  they  have  also  more  points  Contact, 
of  contact  than  any  other  religions.  Mohammed 
speaks  of  the  Bible  and  of  Christ,  of  the  Jewish 
inheritance  and  jof  the  Christian  faith.  His  reli- 
gion supersedes  all  these,  but  nevertheless  it 
rests  upon  them,  and  the  three  features  of  its 
relationship  to  Christianity  afford  our  chief 
points  of  contrast  and  difficulty,  but  also  our 
chief  points  of  contact  and  hope.  ^'(i^)  Islam 
recognizes  the  genuineness  of  the  Christian 
revelation,  (b)  Islam  assumes  a  definite  position 
with  reference  to  Christianity,  (c)  Islam  contains 
in  its  very  foundation  a  misrepresentation  of 
Christianity." 

(a)  The  Koran  endorses  the  revelation  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.  To  be  sure,  it  de- 
clares that  these  vScriptures  have  been  corrupted, 
and   that  we  do   not   now   have  the   original    and 


234      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

reliable  books.      But  here  is  one  common  meeting 
place. 

(b)  And  Mohammed  ''raised  and  answered  the 
claim  of  Christ.  He  assigned  to  Him  His  place 
and  titles,  one  of  the  greatest  prophets,  the  Spirit 
of  God  and  the  Word  of  God.  He  claimed  that 
there  had  been  but  one  true  faith  from  the  be- 
ginning preached  by  all  the  great  prophets,  one 
in  essence  though  differing  in  form.  But  he 
denied  to  Christ  the  title  of  the  Son  of  God,  and 
with  this  denial  placed  Him  on  a  level  with 
Abraham  and  Moses  and  Mohammed  himself. 
He  also  denied  to  Christianity  the  claim  to  be  the 
final  religion.  This  assumption  of  a  definite 
position  is  a  chief  reason  why  Mohammedanism 
has  been  the  hardest  of  all  faiths  to  dislodge.  It 
is  a  common  law  of  human  nature  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  induce  men  to  reconsider  a  position  once 
assumed.  In  this  case  the  difficulty  is  increased 
by  the  fact  that  apparently  so  much  is  conceded. 
Every  true  Moslem  is  ready  to  yield  to  Christ 
high  honor  and  to  ascribe  to  Him  lofty  titles,  and 
this  is  a  great  obstacle  to  giving  the  complete 
allegiance  which  Christ  demands."  ("Methods 
of  Mission  Work  Among  Moslems,"  p.  195.) 
The  Moslems  assert  the  Virgin  birth  of  Christ 
and  His  entire  and  unique  sinlessness,  which 
Mohammed  never  claimed  for  himself;  they  deny 
the  crucifixion  and  resurrection,  but  affirm  the 
ascension  of  Christ  into  heaven,  and  they  believe 
in  His  second  coming,  but  only  to  pre^Dare   for  a 


MOHAMMEDANISM  236 

great  Mohammedan  revival.  And  the  Koran 
itself  calls  Him  both  the  Spirit  of  God  and  the 
Word  of  God.  (Goldsack,  ''Christ  in  Islam.") 
Mohammedans  admit  all  this,  and  here  we  have 
another  common  meeting  ground.  Must  they  not 
some  day  see  that  they  must  admit  more  regard- 
ing Jesus,  the  one  sinless  Prophet  of  Islam? 

(c)  And  in  the  third  place,  the  view  of  Chris- 
tianity which  lies  at  the  base  of  Islam,  and  which 
led  Mohammed  to  repudiate  it,  was  a  false  view. 
He  had  never  met  the  Christianity  of  Christ  and 
the  Apostles.  The  Koran  shows  what  a  travesty 
of  the  Gospel  had  come  to  him.  The  Trinity 
which  he  rejected  was  a  trinity  consisting  of  the 
Father,  the  Son  and  the  Virgin  Mary.  When 
"we  inquire  into  Mohammed's  rejection  of 
Christianity,  we  find  that  he  never  had  anything 
but  the  most  perverted  idea  of  what  Christianity 
really  was.  The  Christianity  which  he  rejected 
was  of  a  very  debased  type,  half  polytheistic  in 
its  theology,  superstitious  in  its  worship,  and 
with  a  sacred  history  encrusted  with  puerile 
legends.  He  had  evidently  never  read  the  New 
Testament,  and  his  conception  of  Christ  is 
largely  derived  from  the  Apocryphal  Gospels. 
It  is  not,  therefore,  historically  just  to  say  that 
Mohammed  rejected  Christ.  Supposing  that 
to-day  there  were  to  arise  a  great  religious  genius 
among  the  peoples  of  the  Congo;  suppose  that 
all  he  knew  of  Jesus  Christ  was  what  he  could 
learn  from  those  rejDresentatives  of  His  who  con- 


236       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

cloned  the  policy  of  King  Leopold,  would  it  be 
just  to  say  of  the  religion  that  he  founded  that  it 
rejected  Christianity?  Nor  can  we  say  that  this 
is  a  matter  of  mere  historical  interest.  Our 
judgment  on  the  point  must  inevitably  condition 
our  whole  attitude  to  the  religion.  For  in  truth 
the  Moslem  rejection  of  Christianity  to-day  rests 
upon  that  fatal  understanding  of  what  Christianity 
is  which  is  revealed  in  the  Koran.  From  this  it 
follows  that  all  the  forces  of  modern  historical 
science  and  criticism  are  fighting  for  us,  for  they 
are  fighting  for  the  removal  of  that  ignorance. 
The  impact  of  the  modern  world  upon  Islam 
must  sooner  or  later  break  up  that  age-long 
delusion.  We  cannot,  of  course,  maintain  that 
there  are  not  within  Islam  powerful  forces  of  evil 
which  are  entrenched  behind  this  misunderstand- 
ing, and  which  will  remain  when  it  has  been 
destroyed.  Still,  here  is  the  vulnerable  point, — a 
point  which  is  not  found  in  other  religions. 
Meantime  it  remains  tragically  true  that  had  the 
Church  of  Syria  been  faithful  to  its  Master  the 
reproach  of  Islam  had  never  lain  upon  Christen- 
dom. The  thought  has  sombre  consequences.  It 
may  be  that  in  the  Africa,  the  China,  and  the 
India  of  to-day  new  religions  are  maturing  which 
in  like  manner  will  be  'anti-Christian,'  and  stand 
in  future  centuries  a  barrier  in  the  way  of  the 
winning  of  the  world."  (Report  of  Commission 
IV,  World  Missionary  Conference,  Ch.  VII.) 

Here  is  the  revelation  of   our   duty — to   correct 
in   love  and   penitence   the   misrepresentation   of 


MOHAMMEDANISM  237 

Christianity  made  to  Arabia  fourteen  hundred 
years  ago,  and  to  represent  Christianity  in  truth 
to  the  eager,  searching,  fast  changing  mind  of  the 
non-Christian  ^oeoples  of  to-day. 

But   can   we   ever   hope   to   recover  what    was   Will 
lost?     Is  Islam  to  abide  in  the  world   as  the  per-   Christianity 
manentreproach  of  a  false  Christianity?     Let  two   Ever  Prevail? 
parables  answer. 

The  first  is  a  story  narrated  recently  by  a  col- 
onel in  the  Turkish  army: — 

A  thoughtful  Turk,  some  thirty  years  ago,  studied 
with  a  holy  teacher  of  great  learning  in  the  city  of 
Adana.  After  his  course  of  training,  he  was  sent  by 
his  teacher  to  Aintab  to  labor  there.  He  found  the 
place  hard  and  the  ignorant  people  dead  to  higher 
things.  In  considerable  discouragement  he  returned  to 
Adana  to  the  presence  of  his  venerable  teacher.  He 
related  his  difficulties  and  told  how  dead  the  city  was, 
and  ended  with  the  statement,  "Aintaby  diriltmek  Haz- 
ret-i-Isya  makhsonssdyr" —  "Only  Jesus  Himself  can 
bring  Aintab  to  life."  The  reply  of  his  teacher  was, 
"You  must  go  back  to  Aintab,  and  there  jk<?«  must  be  a 
Jesus."  He  came,  and  has  recalled  the  tens  of  thou- 
sands to  a  living  practice  of  the  glorious  faith  of  Islam. 

The  second  is  the  well  known  incident  in  the 
Moslem  conquest  of  Damascus.  When  Khalid 
took  the  city  in  635,  after  a  prolonged  siege: — 

One  half  of  the  wealth  of  the  city  passed  to  the  con- 
querors, and  a  tax  was  levied  on  the  inhabitants  who 
did  not  become  Moslems.  The  churches  were  divided, 
one-half  being  given  to  Moslems  and  the  other  half  being 
left  to  the  Christians.  The  Cathedral  was  arranged  in 
two  parts.  In  one  Christian  worship  was  still  carried 
on,  in   the  other   that    of    Islam    was    conducted.     This 


238      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

curious  arrangement  was  continued  for  about  fifty 
years,  when  the  Christian  Congregation  was  ejected  and 
the  whole  building  was  used  for  Mohammedan  worship. 
All  that  was  specially  Christian  in  the  ornaments  and 
decoration  of  the  church  was  now  removed ;  but  over 
the  lintel  of  a  door,  long  since  closed,  words,  which  still 
remain,  were  left  untouched,  a  silent  prophecy  of  what 
Damascus  will  yet  see.  The  verse  is  taken  from  the 
Septuagint  version  of  Psalm  cxlv.  13,  with  the  addition 
of  the  words  ''O  Christ."  It  reads  thus:  ''Thy  King- 
dom, O  Christ,  is  a  kingdom  of  all  ages ;  and  thy  do- 
minion is  from  generation  to  generation."  For  twelve 
centuries  and  more  the  sound  of  Christian  worship  has 
not  been  heard  in  what  was  once  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist.  (Sell,  "The  Four  Rightly  Guided 
Khalifas,"  p.  20  f.) 

But  on   its   walls   still    stands   the    ancient   and 
prophetic  word. 

BIBLE   READING 

Tenth  chapter  of  Romans. 


QUESTIONS 

What  have  been  the  varying  estimates  of  Moham- 
med's character? 

What  is  the  difference  between  Mohammed's  place 
in  Mohammedanism  and  Christ's  place  in  Christianity? 

Give  some  accovint  of  the  life  of  Mohammed. 

Did  his  character  change  after  reaching  Medina  and 
attaining  success? 

Did  Mohammed  use  violence,  and  has  Mohammedan- 
ism relied  on  the  sword  or  profited  by  the  use  of  force? 

What  is  your  judgment  of  Mohammed's  character 
and    influence?     Was    he    a    prophet? 


Syria — Mohammedans  at  Prayer 


MOHAAIMEDANISM  239 

What  are  the  foundations  of  Islam?  Wherein  is  the 
Moslem  idea  of  the  Koran  different  from  the  Christian 
idea  of  the  Bible? 

What  are  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  Moslem  idea 
of  God? 

What  are  the  other  main  doctrines  of  Islam?  Are 
they  Christian?  Describe  the  five  practical  duties  of 
Islam. 

Give  some  account  of  the  spread  of  Mohammedan- 
ism.     How  far  does  it  now  extend  in  the  world? 

Give  some  account  of  its  schisms,  and  especially  of 
Behaism  and  Sufiism. 

What  have  been  the  moral,  social  and  political  effects 
of  Mohammedanism? 

What  have  been  its  greatest  defects? 

Point  out  the  points  of  contrast  and  contact  between 
Mohammedanism  and  Christianity. 

SELECTED  REFERE^JCE  BOOKS 

Dods,  ''Mohammed,  Buddha  and  Christ,"  Hodder  & 
Stoughton,  1893. 

Stobart,  ''Islam  and  its  Founder,"  Society  for  Pro- 
moting Christian  Knowledge,  1877. 

Muir,  "The  Life  of  Mahomet,"  Smith,  Elder  &  Co., 
1877. 

Margoliouth,   "Mohammed,"  Putnam  &  Son,  1905. 

Sale,  "The   Koran,"  Warne  &  Co.,  189L 

Sell,  "The  Faith  of  Islam,"  Trubner  &  Co.,  1896. 

Zwemer,  "Islam,  a  Challenge  to  Faith,"  Student  Vol- 
unteer Movement,  1907. 

Gairdner,  "The  Reproach  of  Islam,"  British  Young 
People's  Missionary  Movement,  1909. 

Haines,  "Islam  as  a  Missionary  Religion,"  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  1889. 

Smith,  "Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism,"  J.  Mur- 
ray, 1889. 


240       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Ameer  AH,  Syed,  ''Islam,"  Archibald  Constable  &  Co., 

1906. 
Shedd,  "Islam  and  the  Oriental  Churches,"  Westminster 

Press,  1904. 
Wherry,  "Islam    and    Christianity    in    the    Far    East," 

Revell,  1907. 
Malcolm,     "Five    Years    in    a    Persian    Town,"  E.     P. 

Dutton  &  Co.,  1905. 
Rice,  "Crusaders  of    the    Twentieth    Century,"  Church 

Missionary  Society,  1910. 
Macdonald,    "Religious    Life    and    Attitude    in  Islam," 

Chicago  University  Press,  1909. 
Van    Sommer    and    Zwemer,    "Our    Moslem    Sisters," 

Revell,  1907. 


CHAPTER   V 

WHAT  THE  CHRISTIANS  OF  ASIA  THINK 
OF  THE  NON-CHRISTIAN  RELIGIONS 


CHAPTER  V 

WHAT    THE    CHRISTIANS    OF    ASIA    THINK    OF    THE 
NON-CHRISTIAN    RELIGIONS 

There  are  no  men  whose  estimate  of  the  non-  xte  Judgment 
Christian  religions  and  whose  judgment  on  the  of  Most 
questions  involved  in  comparative  religion  are  of  Value  on 
more  interest  than  the  Christian  men  of  Asia.  Comparative 
Many  of  them  grew  up  in  the  older  religions,  or 
in  Islam,  and  after  comparing  their  religions  with 
Christianity,  not  in  any  mere  academic  way,  but 
as  a  matter  of  life  and  death,  came  over  into  the 
Christian  faith.  That  change  involved  sacrifices 
which  only  the  most  careful  consideration  and  the 
surest  convictions  on  the  issues  involved  could 
support.  It  is  true  that  the  judgments  of  men 
who  have  passed  through  such  a  radical  expe- 
rience are  likely  to  be  fearless  and  direct  with 
regard  to  those  things  which  they  have  found 
inadequate  or  untrue.  But  any  qualifications  on 
account  of  their  severity  toward  rejected  positions 
which  may  need  to  be  made,  are  not  as  great  as 
the  qualifications  called  for  in  our  consideration 
of  the  results  of  the  theoretical  study  of  compara- 
tive religion  by  Western  scholars,  who  have 
lacked  the  contact  with  reality  possessed  by  the 
Christians  of  Asia.      When  all   things   have  been 


244       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

taken  into  consideration,  it  remains  true  that  no 
opinions  regarding  the  non-Christian  religions 
are  more  significant  than  those  of  the  men  who 
have  personally  known  both  these  religions  and 
Christianity,  and  in  their  own  life  and  experience 
have  fairly  and  honestly  compared  them. 

And  even  where  the  Christians  of  Asia  have 
not  come  out  from  the  non-Christian  religions, 
but  have  grown  up  in  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  second,  third  or  fourth  generation  of  the  new 
churches  which  are  rising  with  accelerating 
rapidity  all  over  Asia,  their  judgment  is  valuable 
and  interesting.  They  see  the  non-Christian 
religions  at  first  hand,  in  their  actual  fruitage  as 
well  as  in  their  ancient  philosophy.  They  are 
obliged  to  maintain  their  faith  and  to  propagate 
it,  not  in  an  atmosphere  predominantly  or  nom- 
inally Christian,  but  in  the  face  of  shrewd  dis- 
putations, or  solid  inertia,  or  critical  scrutiny 
both  of  profession  and  practice.  What  they 
believe  about  Christianity  they  must  be  able  to 
vindicate  against  all  that  their  neighbors  of  other 
religions  can  say  and  are  saying  daily  to  them, 
and  what  they  believe  about  the  other  religions 
they  believe  not  because  SDme  one  tells  it  to  them 
or  they  read  it  in  books,  but  because  they  see  it 
and  hear  it  daily.  The  problem  of  comparative 
religion  to  them  is  not  a  problem  for  detached 
occasional  study.  So  far  as  the  Christian  spirit 
is  eager  and  alive  in  them,  the  questions  raised 
in  the  comparison  of  religions  are  their  daily 
breath. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  245 

Accordingly,  as  bearing  on  the  question  of  the  Testimony 
true  character  of  the  non-Christian  religions  and  SougKt. 
of  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  these  religions, 
a  series  of  questions  was  sent  by  the  writer  to 
some  of  the  leading  Christian  men  in  Asia.  The 
questions  which  were  asked  included  the 
following: — 

1.  Are  the  non-Christian  religions  or  faiths 
really  ^^religions"  or  ''faiths"  in  the  same  sense 
in  which  these  words  are  applied  to  Christianity? 

2.  What  are  the  radical  and  essential  differences 
between  Christianity  and  the  non-Christian 
religions  ? 

3.  How  should  Christianity  be  presented  to  the 
non-Christian  peoples? 

4.  Should  the  emphasis  be  laid  upon  the  points 
which  Christianity  has  in  common  with  the  non- 
Christian  religions,  or  should  these  be  made 
merely  the  starting  point  in  the  effort  to  show 
what  Christianity  alone  offers? 

5.  Are  the  elements  which  Christianity  has  in 
common  with  other  religions  as  numerous  and 
extensive  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  or  are  there 
fundamental  differences  of  principle  which  makes 
these  points  of  contact  apparent  rather  than  real? 

6.  What  should  be  the  proper  attitude  of  Chris- 
tian preachers  and  teachers  and  of  organized 
Christianity  in  Asia  to  the  non-Christian  reli- 
gions? 

7.  How  far  has  Christianity  as  yet  actually 
touched  the  life  and  thought  of  any  Asiatic  land? 


246      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

Mr.  Meredith  Townsend,  in  ''Asia  and  Europe," 
holds  that  Asia  seems  condemned  by  some  fiat  of 
arrest;  that  while  capable  of  being  moved  by  self- 
generated  ideas,  she  seems  to  be  inaccessible  to 
new  forces  from  without;  that  ''something  radical, 
something  unalterable  and  indestructible  divides 
the  Asiatic  from  the  European.  .  .  .  They  are 
fenced  off  from  each  other  by  an  invisible, 
impalpable  but  impassable  wall,"  ("Asia  and 
Europe,  "pp.  36,  50,  150),  and  that  Christianity 
cannot  hope,  accordingly,  to  displace  the  non- 
Christian  religions  and  to  penetrate  the  life  of  the 
non-Christian  world.  What  do  you  think  of  this 
view? 

8.  Is  there  such  a  racial  chasm  between  the 
East  and  the  West,  or  is  the  common  talk  about 
such  a  chasm  groundless  ?  Are  there  not  many 
Orientals  and  Occidentals  who  understand  each 
other,  and  who  have  more  in  common  than  either 
Orientals  or  Occidentals  have  among  themselves? 

9.  Is  the  Christianity,  not  of  the  Church  nor 
of  the  West,  but  of  the  New  Testament,  the  final 
and  absolute  religion  for  man,  or  is  it  to  be 
modified  by  contact  with  the  non-Christian 
religions? 

Competent  Answers  to  these  questions  were  received   from 

Witnesses.        Japan    from    Bishop    Honda    of     the    Methodist 

Church,  President  K.  Jbuka  of  the  Meiji  Gakuin, 

Mr.  Kozaki,  ex-president   of  the   Doshisha,   Mr. 

Ebina,  one  of  the  ablest  leaders  of  the  "advanced" 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  247 

school,  Mr.  Uemiira,  editor  of  the  ''Fukuin 
Shimpo, "  president  of  a  Japanese  theological 
school  and  one  of  the  leading  preachers  in  Japan, 
and  Justice  Watanabe,  head  of  the  judiciary  in 
Korea;  from  Korea  from  Dr.  Philip  Jaisohn,  one 
of  the  early  Christian  leaders  there,  now  resident 
in  the  United  States,  and  from  Pastor  S.  C.  Kil 
of  Pyeng  Yang;  from  China  from  two  pastors  in 
Che-Kiang  Province,  and  from  Mr.  Tsen,  one  of 
Bishop  Root's  trusted  clergy  at  Gan  King;  from 
India  from  Prof.  N.  C.  Mukerji  of  Allahabad, 
formerly  a  Brahman  and  one  of  the  most  thought- 
ful Christian  men  in  northern  India,  and  from 
Professor  Siraj  ud  Din  of  Lahore,  a  prominent 
convert  from  Mohammedanism.  It  would  have 
been  easy  to  increase  the  list,  but  these  men  were 
notably  representative. 

It  will  suffice  simply  to  present  the  views  of 
these  correspondents,  prefixing  the  name  and 
country  of  each,  and  supplementing  their  views 
on  one  or  two  points  by  the  addition  of  several 
opinions  from  Christians  In  India  who  have  come 
over  from  Islam. 

1.   Are   the   non-Christian   religions    or    faiths   Are  the  non- 
really  '^religions''  or  ''faiths"  in   the  same  sense   Christian 
in  which  these  words  are  applied  to  Christianity?   Religions 

Religions? 

Kozaki,  Japan; — 

If  by  religion  is  meant  a  personal  relationship  be- 
tween God  and  man,  the  non-Christian  religions  of 
Japan  are  not  religions  in  the  same  sense  as  Christianity. 


248       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

It  all  depends  upon  the  definition  of  the  term  reli- 
gion. If  bj  religion  is  meant,  as  it  is  very  often  done, 
the  communion  of  man  with  God,  or  the  self-surrender 
of  the  soul  to  God,  that  would  exclude  Buddhism,  be- 
cause Buddhism  has  no  God.  But  in  the  broader  sense 
of  the  term.  Buddhism  is  a  religion  as  well  as  Islam  or 
Christianity.  But  if  you  mean  by  it  the  true  or  abso- 
lute form  of  religion,  the  term  could  be  applied  only  to 
Christianity. 

Honda,  Japan: — 

Confucianism  can  hardly  be  described  as  a  religion  at 
all.  Shintoism  and  Buddhism  are  not  theistic ;  and 
while  Shintoists  and  Buddhists  offer  prayers,  they  have 
little  or  no  sense  of  moral  responsibility  to  the  objects 
of  their  worship. 

Jaisohn,  Korea: — 

The  eastern  part  of  Asia  has  really  no  religion  in  the 
same  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used  with  Christianity. 
The  upper  or  educated  class  profess  Confucianism,  which 
is  really  a  moral  philosophy  rather  than  a  religion. 
The  uneducated  believe  in  superstitions  of  various  forms, 
which  can  hardly  be  called  religions. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

You  can  call  them  ''teachings"  (kyo),  but  not ''Way 
or  Road  "  (To).  A  "teaching"  has  no  power  to 
change  men's  minds. 

Tsen,  China: — 

In  the  Eastern  countries  religion  really  means  teach- 
ing, and  worship  is  of  a  later  growth,  or  a  corruption 
or  adaptation  from  the  natural  or  popular  religious 
practices.  Faith,  in  ethnic  religions,  is  no  more  than  a 
philosophical  idea,  and  not  a  statement  of  facts  based 
on  divine  revelation  or  trust  in  the  Divine. 

Che-Kiang  Pastors,  China: — 

The  "world  religions"  are  not  religions  in  the  true 
s^nse^  and  are  only  useful   for  the  present  life,  for  they 


ASIA'S  OWA^  OPINIO  A'  249 

come  from  men.  The  teachings  of  Jesus  are  from 
heaven,  and  how  can  they  be  just  the  same  as  human 
teachings  ? 

While  the  world  religions  are  religious,  they  lack  the 
reality  of  the  salvation  of  Jesus. 

Mukerji,  India: — 

In  India  to-day  religion — I  am  speaking  of  Hindus 
particularly — is  largely  ceremonialism,  and  the  spiritual 
intuitions  of  the  people  are  in  a  dormant  state  and  have 
to  be  developed  to  make  religion  a  personal  relationship 
with  a  living  Creator.  The  philosophic  system  supply 
its  votaries  with  a  species  of  religious  culture  which 
cannot  meet  the  above  description  of  religion.  The 
nearest  approach  to  religion  in  the  Christian  sense  is 
made,  in  Hinduism,  by  its  Bhakti. 

Siraj  ud  Din,   India: — 

(a)  The  other  two  Semitic  Religions  or  Faiths,  viz., 
the  Jewish  and  the  Mohammedan,  are  religions  or  faiths 
more  or  less  in  the  same  sense  as  Christianity. 

(b)  But  the  non-Semitic  religions  are  not :  (1)  The 
Semitic  religions  present  God  as  a  personal  God,  where- 
as the  non-Semitic  religions  present  God,  if  at  all,  as  an 
immanent,  pervading  spirit.  (2)  The  element  of  Faith 
is  foremost  in  the  Christian  religion  and  also  more  or 
less  in  Judaism  and  Mohammedanism,  but  in  the  non- 
Semitic  religions  it  is  quite  secondary. 

2.   What   are    the  radical    and    essential    differ-    CKristianity 
ences  between  Christianity  and  the  non-Christian   Radically 
reliorions?  Unlike  Other 

o 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

The  radical  and  essential  differences  between  Chris- 
tianity and  the  non-Christian  religions  of  Japan  are 
these  : — • 

1.  In  a  sense  it  may  be  said  that  the  non-Christian 
religions  have  in  them  certain  elements  which  may  be 


Religions. 


250      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

regarded  as  coming  from  God ;  but  in  Christianity  God 
reveals  Himself  with  a  clearness,  a  fullness  and  a 
directness  which  makes  it  quite  unique.  The  old  dis- 
tinction often  made  is  true :  in  Christianity,  God  is  seek- 
ing men;  in  the  non-Christian  religions,  man  is  seeking 
God. 

2.  In  the  non-Christian  religions,  the  truths  as  to 
God,  man  and  immortality  are  only  dimly  perceived  and 
set   forth;  in  Christianity  they  are  ^'brought   to  light." 

3.  While  the  word  salvation  is  used  by  both  Shin- 
toists  and  Buddhists,  what  is  meant  is  very  different 
from  what  is  meant  by  it  as  it  is  used  by  Christians.  In 
Christianity,  salvation  means  deliverance  from  sin  and 
its  consequences  and  all  that  flows  from  fellowship  with 
God  in  Christ.  In  Shintoism,  salvation  means  chiefly 
deliverance  from  the  power  of  evil  spirits;  and  in  Bud- 
dhism, deliverance  from  the  ills  supposedly  inherent  in 
conscious  existence.  This  will  serve  also  to  illustrate 
the  care  to  be  taken  not  to  be  misled  by  the  use  of 
words;  and  the  same  caution  is  applicable  to  isolated 
passages  in  Shinto  and  Buddhist  writings. 

4.  Christianity  meets  both  the  religious  and  the 
ethical  needs  of  man ;  and  it  does  so  perfectly.  The 
non-Christian  religions  of  Japan  meet  those  needs  very 
imperfectly,  and  it  is  a  significant  fact  that  each  may  be 
said  in  general  to  occupy  a  field  of  its  own.  I  write 
very  briefly,  but  in  brief  this  is  true.  Shintoism  as  a 
religion  has  to  do  with  the  supernatural  chiefly  in  its 
relations  to  the  things  of  this  life.  Accordingly,  when 
a  child  is  born  it  is  taken  to  a  Shinto  temple  (never  to  a 
Buddhist  one)  and  is  committed  for  protection  and 
guidance  in  life  to  a  Shinto  god.  Buddhism,  on  the 
other  hand,  has  to  do  chiefly  with  the  future,  with  exist- 
ence beyond  the  grave.  That  is  why  the  Buddhist 
temples  are  so  generally  frequented  by  the  old.  They 
visit  them  in  preparation  for  death ;  to  pray  for  salva- 
tion (the  salvation  of   Buddhism)  in  the  future.      (It   is 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  251 

only  since  1873,  when  the  government  separated  Shin- 
toism  and  Buddhism  as  religions,  that  funerals  have 
been  conducted  by  Shinto  priests.)  Confucianism,  as 
you  know,  confines  itself  to  rules  for  individual  and  social 
conduct ;  and  as  to  the  supernatural,  is  purely  agnostic. 
Under  the  Tokugawa  regime,  this  fact  (that  Shintoism, 
Buddhism  and  Confucianism  occupy  different  fields,  and 
that  no  one  of  them  alone  is  sufficient)  was  officially 
recognized ;  and  the  attempt  was  made  to  combine  them. 
Families  were  required  to  be  connected  with  both  Shinto 
and  Buddhist  temples ;  and  the  instruction  in  ethics  was 
to  be  Confucian.  It  frequently  happens  also  that  one 
who  in  all  his  thinking  is  a  Confucianist  will  have  in 
his  house  both  Shinto  and  Buddhist  shrines.  From  this 
it  will  be  seen  that  (to  say  nothing  more)  the  non- 
Christian  religions  of  Japan  form  a  piece  of  curious 
patchwork ;  and  that  this  fact  alone  radically  differenti- 
ates them  from  the  Christianity  of  Christ  and  the  New 
Testament. 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

Buddhism,  in  its  philosophical  form,  is  either  pan- 
theistic or  atheistic  and,  in  its  popular  form,  polythe- 
istic, while  Christianity  is  theistic  from  beginning  to 
end.  The  Buddhistic  idea  of  man,  also,  is  radically 
different  from  that  of  Christianity.  The  transmigration 
of  the  soul  is  one  of  its  essential  ideas  of  man,  with  all 
it  implies.  So  are  the  conceptions  of  sin  'and  future 
life.  It  would  not  be  difficult  to  mention  other  points 
of  difference.  But  the  fundamental  difference  between 
Buddhism  and  Christianity,  I  think,  is  this, — Buddhism 
is  a  system  of  metaphysical  and  ethical  ideas  and  prin- 
ciples. According  to  Christianity,  God  has  an  eternal 
purpose  which  he  is  carrying  out.  To  carry  this  out  he 
has  in  fact  manifested  Himself  in  history.  In  His  in- 
carnation, the  cross,  the  redemption,  the  ascension  of 
Christ,  He  has  entered  into  union  with  man,  met  the 
problem  of  sin,  raised  man  to  a  new  life.     The  believer 


252      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

enters  into  union  with  God  in  Christ,  and  so  will  have 
a  share  in  the  eternal  glory.  There  is  nothing  like  that 
in  Buddhism. 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

The  non-Christian  religions  are  ethnic  and  therefore 
imperfect;  Christianity  is  a  religion  for  man  as  man, 
and  is  perfect.  The  non-Christian  religions  have  come 
to  be  rather  systems  of  philosophy  or  ethics;  Chris- 
tianity is  a  life.  As  a  life  it  enters  humanity;  and  is  a 
power  progressively  delivering  humanity  from  igno- 
rance, superstition,  sin  and  its  consequences,  and  bring- 
ing it  more  and  more  to  the  mind  of  Christ.  The  non- 
Christian  religions  belong  rather  to  the  past  and  have 
finished  their  work.  That  work  Christianity  completes  ; 
and  to  it  belong  the  present  and  the  future. 

Honda,  Japan: — 

The  radical  and  essential  differences  between  Chris- 
tianity and  the  non-Christian  religions  of  Japan  are 
these:  (1)  The  non-Christian  religions  are  pantheistic 
or  polytheistic.  (2)  They  have  in  them  practically 
nothing  that  corresponds^to  the  revelation  of  God  in 
Christ. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

In  a  word,  the  difference  between  the  perfect  and  the 
imperfect,  the  complete  and  the  defective.  The  non- 
Christian  religions  see  in  a  mirror  darkly  and  dis- 
tortedly;  in  Christianity  life  and  immortality  are 
brought  to  light. 

Watanabe,  Japan: — 

The  radical  difference  between  Christianity  and  nonr 
Christian  religions  seems  to  consist  in  their  principal 
objects  of  worship.  I  do  not  think  that  there  is  any 
religion  which  interprets  our  God  Jehovah  as  clearly 
^nd  perfectly  as  does  Christianity. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  253 

Tsen,  China: — 

To  speak  in  general,  the  great  difference  between 
Christianity  and  non-Christian  religions  is  that  in  the 
one  religion  and  oolitics  are  distinct  or  rather  that 
Christianity  is  the  more  predominant  in  the  life  of  the 
Christian,  whereas  in  the  other,  Erastianism.  The  one  is 
active,  growing,  developing,  philosophical,  ideal  yet 
equally  practical,  stimulating;  the  other  inactive, 
stationary,  too  philosophical  and  idealistic  and  abstract 
and  false  to  be  practicable.  The  fossilized  ideas  or 
religion  may  be  galvanized  at  times,  but  cannot  be  a 
continuous  force  for  good,  hence  easily  corruptible. 

Che-Kiang  Pastors,  China: — 

The  religion  of  Jesus,  being  from  heaven,  has  saving 
grace  for  body  and  soul,  proclaiming  redemption  from 
sin  and  eternal  happiness.  This  constitutes  the  great 
difference  between  it  and  the  world  religions. 

The  religion  of  Jesus  has  power  in  itself,  and  when  it 
finds  a  lodgment  in  the  heart  of  a  believer,  he  is  enabled 
to  take  pleasure  in  the  will  of  God. 

The  emphasis  is  put  by  Christianity  on  atonement  for 
sin  and  redemption,  while  other  religions  put  the 
emphasis  on  meritorious  conduct. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

Christianity  offers  redemption  from  sin,  the  salva- 
tion of  the  soul,  the  baptism  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
regeneration — the  giving  of  a  new  life.  Other  religions 
teach   good  conduct   but  are  lacking  in  these  essentials. 

Mukerji,  India: — 

It  is  very  difficult  to  point  out  the  essential  differ- 
ences between  Hinduism  and  Christianity,  as  the  former 
is  not  a  system  but  a  congeries  of  beliefs  with  many 
strands  in  it, — such  as  Vedic,  Philosophic,  and  Puranic 
Hinduism, — each  having  its  distinctive  doctrines.  The 
only  doctrine   that   may  be   said   to   be   common   to   all 


254      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

these  divisions  is  Karma  and  Transmigration.  The 
essential  differences  are  most  apparent  in  Philosophic 
Hinduism.  The  root  ideas  here  are  totally  different 
from  Christianity.  God  is  impersonal,  the  end  of  man 
is  absorption  in  the  Divine;  sin  is  an  illusion. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

(a)  As  regards  the  Semitic  Religions:  (1)  Judaism 
is  not  Moses,  nor  Mohammedanism  Mohammed,  in  the 
sense  that  Christianity  is  Christ.  (2)  Law  came  through 
Moses  and  we  may  add  (with  due  reverence  to  the 
prophets  of  the  Old  Testament)  also  through  Moham- 
med, but  Grace  came  through  Jesus  Christ.  (3)  Both 
Judaism  and  Mohammedanism  emphasize  God  as  Power 
as  distinguished  from  Love.  Hence  the  Cross  is  God  as 
weakness  to  the  Jew  and  the  Mohammedan,  but  God  as 
power  to  the  regenerated  soul.  (4)  Judaism  has  a 
Supernatural  basis  ;  Christianity  is  Supernatural  through 
and  through.  Mohammedanism  admits  the  Supernatural 
in  its  record  ol  history,  but  in  its  Logical  sequence 
approaches  the  Natural  or  the  purely  Rational. 

(b)  As  regards  the  non-Semitic  Religions:  (1)  They 
emphasize  God  as  Wisdom  (or  rather  human  wisdom) 
rather  than  Faith.  They  are,  according  to  their  popular 
acceptation,  nothing  but  systems  of  ritualism  and 
according  to  their  highest  interpretation  primarily 
systems  of  philosophy  (I  am  keeping  chiefly  Hinduism 
in  view)  rather  than  religions  of  Life.  They  are  pre- 
eminently theoretical  rather  than  practical.  They  appeal 
primarily  to  the  Intellect,  whereas  Christianity  appeals 
in  the  first  instance  to  the  Will.  Hence  the  Cross  is 
foolishness  to  the  Greek  and  the  Hindu,  whereas  it  is 
God  as  wisdom  to  the  believer.  (2)  The  absence  of  the 
idea  of  God  as  personality  in  the  non-Semitic  religions 
has  already  been  referred  to. 


Japan — An  Idol  Procession 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  255 

3.    How   should    Christianity   be   presented    to  How 

the  non-Christian  peoples?  Present 

Tsen,  China:—  Christianity 

.     .  to  non- 
Christianity  should  be  presented  to  the  non-Christian  /-!•.•       ^ 

peoples  not  as  at  flat  contradiction  or  at  defiance  to  all 
the  religions  already  in  existence,  but  as  acknowledging 
and  approving  all  the  good  that  is  in  them.  And  that, 
while  perfect  in  itself,  Christianity  seeks  to  perfect  all 
that  they  are  trying  to  do  to  reveal  to  them  the  mys- 
teries of  God  which  they  are  seeking  after  and  soothe 
their  hearts.  That  tlie  Christian  religion  is  a  religion 
of  mercy,  of  the  only  God  and  of  salvation  by  Jesus 
Christ  only ;  meeting  all  the  social,  moral  and  spiritual 
wants  and  longings  of  all  ages  and  climes,  healing  all 
"groans"  and  giving  hold  to  all  the  gropings  after  Truth 
and  Good,  and  yea,  God. 

Che-Kiang  Pastors,  China: — 

Start  with  what  men  already  believe,  and  slowly  lead 
through  into  the  truth. 

Aim  first  of  all  to  bring  men  to  an  appreciation  of 
their  own  sin  and  then  present  the  offer  of  salvation 
through  Christ. 

Jaisohn,  Korea: — 

In  presenting  Christianity  to  non-Christian  people,  I 
believe  the  teachings  of  Jesus  inspired  in  the  New  Test- 
ament should  be  taught  first  and  emphasized.  Of 
course,  the  missionary  must  not  only  teach  them  by 
words,  but  he  must  impress  them  with  his  Christlike 
life  in  private,  as  well  as  public. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

As  offering  redemption  from  sin  and  everlasting  life. 
In  order  to  arouse  to  a  sense  of  sin  and  to  acceptance  of 
salvation.  As  showing  that  this  is  a  condemned  world. 
There  is  no  power  in  presenting  anything  else.  This  it 
is  which  has  had  power  in  winning  all  the  Korean 
Christians. 


^56      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


Skould  Dif- 
ferences or 
Resemblance 
be 
Emphasized  ? 


Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

The  stereotyped,  but,  all  the  same,  the  right  answer 
to  this  question  is  :  Not  by  sermons,  not  by  preaching 
only,  but  by  Life.  One  must  live  Christ.  The  head 
has  been  reached  in  many  cases  but  not  the  heart.  The 
experience  of  converts  to  Christianity  bears  out  the 
truth  that  it  was  something  in  the  life  of  a  Christian 
teacher  or  preacher,  or  friend  or  acquaintance,  that  led 
them  to  accept  Christ. 

4.  Most  of  the  correspondents  merged  the 
third  question  in  the  fourth.  Should  the  em- 
phasis be  laid  upon  the  points  which  Christianity 
has  in  common  with  the  non-Christian  religions, 
or  should  these  be  made  merely  the  starting  point 
in  the  effort  to  show  what  Christianity  alone 
offers  ? 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

In  presenting  Christianity  to  the  Japanese,  emphasis 
should  be  laid  upon  the  truths  distinctive  of  it,  rather 
than  upon  those  which  it  holds  in  common  with  Shin- 
toism,  Buddhism  and  Confucianism. 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

The  points  which  the  non-Christian  religions  of 
Japan  have  in  common  with  Christianity  should  be 
taken  merely  as  starting  points.  My  own  endeavor  is 
to  show  that  Christianity  fulfills  the  truths  contained  in 
the  non-Christian  religions  ;  and  I  am  careful  to  note 
both  the  resemblances  and  the  differences. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

The  truths  which  the  non-Christian  religions  of 
Japan  have  in  common  with  Christianity  should  be 
taken  only  as  stepping  stones  to  what  is  clearer  and 
higher  in  Christianity.  The  example  to  follow  is  Paul 
on  Mars  Hill. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  257 

Honda,   Japan: — 

In  presenting  Christianity  to  Shintoists,  Buddhists 
and  Confucianists,  the  points  in  common  should  be 
taken  simply  as  starting  points  from  which  to  lead  to 
the  distinctive  truths  of  Christianity. 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

In  pi-esenting  Christianity  to  non-Christian  people 
who  know  little  or  nothing  about  it,  it  is  eminently  wise 
to  find  some  points  which  the  Christian  and  non-Chris- 
tian hold  in  common.  An  experienced  preacher  in- 
stinctively seeks  such  points,  especially  when  he  stands 
before  a  prejudiced  or  hostile  audience.  But  that 
should  be  only  the  starting  point  in  the  effort  to  show 
how  different  Christianity  is  from  all  that  they  have 
believed  or  been  taught.  If  the  chief  object  were  to 
bring  out  the  essential  oneness  of  Christianity  with 
other  religions,  it  would  be  hardly  worth  while  to  send 
missionaries  to  non-Christian  lands. 

Tsen,  China: — 

The  things  in  common  should  be  made  as  the  start- 
ing point,  the  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  the  mercy  of 
God,  the  Heavenly  Father,  and  salvation  from  sin  by 
Jesus  Christ.  At  the  same  time,  though  there  are  many 
points  in  common,  theirs  are  but  fragmentary  or  defi- 
cient, or  even  a  semblance  of  the  truth,  and  need  to  be 
purified  by  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  The  ethnic  reli- 
gions and  heathen  philosophies  have  their  work  and 
worth  in  the  building  of  the  Temple  of  God  and  Christ 
comes  to  be  its  Headstone,  yea  its  completion. 

Che-Kiang  Pastors,  China: — 

Of  course  you  should  point  out  the  features  in  which 
Christianity  and  other  religions  agree,  but  the  more 
important  thing  is  to  emphasize  the  points  of  difference. 

The  preacher  should  put  the  emphasis  on  the  points  of 
difference  between  Christianity  and  the  world  religions, 
so  as  to  cause  the  hearer  to  compare  the  true  and  the 
false  and  discover  the  difference. 


258      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Jaisohn,  Korea: — 

I  believe  the  missionary  should  point  out  strongly  the 
differences  between  Christianity  and  other  religions 
rather  than  to  lay  emphasis  on  the  points  which  may 
exist  in  common  with  them.  All  religions  or  moral 
philosophies  have  some  points  in  common,  but  com- 
paratively in  minor  points,  with  Christianity.  The 
fundamental  or  cardinal  principle  of  Christianity  is  the 
belief  of  Jesus  as  the  only  Saviour  of  the  world,  through 
whom  alone  we  can  reach  our  God  and  His  Kingdom. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

There  is  no  power  in  presenting  the  common 
points, — one  should  preach  the  distinctive  doctrines  of 
the  salvation  of  the  soul  and  redemption  from  sin.  One 
should  teach  the  Scriptures,  not  the  sayings  of  Confu- 
cius. The  truths  which  the  people  do  not  know  from 
the  non-Christian  religions  are  what  bring  power  and 
inspiration.  However,  one  can  often  teach  of  sin  by 
reference  to  the  fact  that  they  have  not  obeyed  even  the 
moral  teachings  of  Confucius. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

That  the  unsympathetic  attitude  of  the  preachers  of 
Christianity  towards  the  followers  of  other  religions  is 
certainly  un-Christian,  in  so  far  as  it  shows  lack  of  love, 
is  clear.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  also  danger 
of  making  too  much  of  the  points  of  resemblance 
between  the  Christian  and  the  non-Christian  faiths. 
There  is  fear  of  degenerating  into  a  spirit  of  compro- 
mise (as  is  evident  in  the  case  of  many  professed 
believers)  and  finally  accepting  an  unscriptural  and 
entirely  irrational  eclecticism.  There  is  danger  of 
losing  sight  of  the  fact  that  Fulfillment  and  Exclusive- 
ness  are  both  fundamental  attributes  of  Christianity. 
While  Christ  is  the  fulfillment  of.  the  desire  of  all 
nations.  He  is  also  exclusively  so.  ''No  man  knoweth 
who  the  Father  is  but  the  Son  and   he  to  whom  the  Son 


APIA'S  OWN  OPINION  259 

will  reveal  Him.  (Matt.  xi.  27.)  We  should  take  the 
resemblances  only  as  a  starting  point,  but  ever  empha- 
size the  peculiarities  and  excellences  of  the  truth  in 
Christ,  and  carefully  avoid  giving  people  the  impression 
that  there  is  truth  in  other  religions  even  as  we  find  it 
in  Christianity. 

.5.    Are  the  elements  which  Christianity   has  in   Are  the 
common   with    other    religions    as   numerous  and   Differences 
extensive  as    is  sometimes  supposed,  or  are  there   Fundamental 
fundamental  differences  of  principle  which   make 
these  points  of  contact  apparent  rather  than  real? 

Honda,  Japan: — 

The  points  in  common  between  Christianity  and  the 
non-Christian  religions  of  Japan  are  less  numerous  than 
is  supposed  by  some ;  and  many  of  them  are  more 
apparent  than  real.  That  this  is  so,  and  must  be  so,  is 
evident  when  one  considers  that  no  one  of  these  non- 
Christian  religions  is  theistic,  and  that  their  ethical 
teaching  is  utilitarian  rather  than  religious  in  its  princi- 
ples and  sanctions. 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

There  is  a  tendency  among  Western  scholars  to  put 
too  much  stress  upon  the  resemblances  of  Christianity  to 
non-Christian  religions.  The  points  in  common  are  not 
so  numerous  as  is  supposed  by  some  ;  and  the  differ- 
ences are  so  fundamental  that  the  resemblances  are 
often  more  apparent  than  real. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

There  are  many  points  of  resemblance,  for  the  non- 
Christian  religions  recognize  the  existence  of  something 
supernatural,  .and  that  this  something  is  closely  related 
to  man.  But  the  differences  are  numerous  and  funda- 
mental.    To  illustrate  very  briefly  : — 

(1)  Shintoism.  In  Japan  bands  of  pilgrims  are  often 
seen  on  their  way  to  sacred   places.     The  word    for   pil- 


260       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

grimage  means  wayfaring  worship ;  and  each  pilgrim 
bears  written  on  his  hat  the  words,  "Two  going  to- 
gether" (/.  e.,  the  pilgrim  and  the  pilgrim's  god).  In 
the  old  Shintoism,  the  idea  of  sin  as  an  offense  against 
God  is  prominent.  (The  word  for  sin  is  composed  of 
two  words ;  one  means  disquietude,  and  the  other  self. 
Such  a  word  has  in  it  the  ideas  of  personal  responsi- 
bility, a  troubled  conscience,  guilt.  Evidence  of  the 
same  kind  appears  in  Shinto  prayers.)  Still  it  must  be 
said  that  even  in  the  old  and  purer  Shintoism  sin  is 
conceived  of  rather  as  ceremonial  defilement.  One  is 
reminded  of  the  Jewish  conceptions  of  sin  which  the 
prophets  condemned.  If  Shintoism  had  followed  its 
true  bent  it  might  have  approached  the  deeper  convic- 
tion of  sin  as  moral  evil ;  and  therefore,  from  that  point 
of  view,  there  are  occasions  when  the  Christian  preacher 
may  properly  call  upon  the  Japanese  to  seek  out  the  old 
ways.  But  the  true  development  of  Shintoism  was 
checked  and  set  back  by  the  invasion  of  Buddhism  and 
Confucianism.  Still  even  in  the  Shintoism  of  to-day 
there  is  a  strong  element  of  reverence.  (Yet  even  this 
statement  must  be  qualified,  because  it  is  a  reverence 
whose  roots  are  fed  rather  by  the  aesthetic  than  by  the 
ethical.) 

(2)  Buddhism.  The  philosophy  underlying  Buddhism 
i«  pantheistic;  and  this  of  necessity  differentiates  it 
fundamentally  from  Christianity.  The  world  is  full  of 
sorrow  and  suffering,  with  ignorance  for  their  cause ; 
but  the  sense  of  sin  in  Buddhism  as  moral  evil  is  very 
feeble,  and  there  is  little  or  no  feeling  of  personal 
responsibility  to  God.  Man  is  groping  for  a  way  of 
escape  from  the  ills  of  life.  Yet  there  are  in  Buddhism 
striking  resemblances  to  Christian  truths.  At  times 
pantheism  retreats  into  the  background.  Amida  and  the 
goddess  Kwannon  are  both  conceived  of  as  personal ; 
and  they  are  both  abundant  in  mercy  and  ready  to  save. 
But  if  the  resemblances  are  striking,  no  less  are  the 
differences.     The  salvation  is  not  a  salvation   from   sin. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  261 

One  could  not  say  of  Amida,  And  if  je  call  on  Amida 
as  Father,  who  without  respect  of  persons  judgeth 
according  to  each  man's  work,  pass  the  time  of  jour 
sojourning  in  fear.  The  mercy  of  Kwannon  is  the 
mercy  of  motherliness,  a  motherliness  too  indulgent 
ever  to  punish.  Neither  Amida  nor  Kwannon  could 
say,  Be  ye  holy ;  for  I  am  holy.  And  what  must  never 
be  forgotten  is  this :  Amida  and  Kwannon  are  purely 
subjective  creations;  mere  apotheoses  of  what  is  craved 
after  by  the  heart  of  Buddhism.  In  Christ  we  have  the 
objective  revelation  in  history  of  the  holiness  and  love 
of  God.  Amida  and  Kwannon  are  only  cries  for  light; 
Christ  is  the  Light  of  the  World. 

(3)  Confucianism.  Properly  speaking,  Confucianism 
is  not  a  religion.  Religiously  considered,  it  is  thorough- 
going agnosticism ;  ethically  considered,  it  is  equally 
thoroughgoing  utilitarianism.  If  a  Confucianist  is 
religious,  it  is  not  because  of  his  Confucianism  but  in 
spite  of  it.  There  are  Confucianists  who  are  also 
Shintoists  ;  and  there  are  Christians  who  are  also  Con- 
fucianists. But  Confucianism  as  Confucianism  is  secu- 
larism. It  boasts  that  it  is  practical ;  and  it  is  practical, 
— so  practical  that  it  quenches  the  desire  and  atrophies 
the  mind  for  the  higher  things.  It  does  not  seek  the 
things  that  are  above.  It  minds  earthly  things,  and 
finds  its  kingdom  of  heaven  in  politics.  The  Con- 
fucianist may,  and  often  does,  have  a  vague  conscious- 
ness of  the  Great  Companion  ;  but  it  is  because  he  is  a 
man,  not  because  he  is  a  Confucianist.  The  American 
Confucius  was  Benjamin  Franklin;  and  Poor  Richard 
without  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  year  in  and  year  out 
for  line  upon  line  and  precept  upon  precept,  would 
make  America  another  China. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  the  Confucianist  is  more 
receptive  of  Christianity  than  the  Buddhist;  and  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  progress  of  Christianity  in  Tosa  as 
compared  with  its  progress  in  the  parts  of  Japan  where 
Buddhist  is  dominant.     But  Satsuma  and  Choshu,  which 


262       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

united  with  Tosa  in  the  Restoration,  were  quite  as 
strongly  Confucian  as  Tosa  ;  and  jet  there  has  been  in 
them  no  corresponding  progress  of  Christianity.  On 
the  other  hand,  Christianity  has  made  good  progress  in 
Nagoya,  which  is  a  center  of  Buddhism.  The  notable 
progress  in  Tosa  is  due  to  two  causes  combined.  The 
people  were  open  minded,  progressive  and  ready  to 
receive  the  things  of  the  West;  and  in  the  beginning  of 
the  gospel  in  Tosa  a  little  group  of  men  of  influence 
accepted  Christianity  in  sincerity  and  truth. 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

The  points  in  common  are  numerous  and  extensive  ; 
and  there  are  also  fundamental  differences.  To  illus- 
trate : — 

(1)  In  Shintoism,  especially  in  the  tenets  of  the 
Kurozumi  Sect,  God  is  conceived  of  as  a  father  and 
men  as  his  children.  There  is  a  life  eternal  which  is 
thought  of  as  divine.  But  it  should  be  said  that  its 
conception  of  God,  while  clearly  not  deistic,  does  not 
distinguish  sharply  between  theism  and  pantheism. 

(2)  As  to  Buddhism:  Philosophically  the  Jodo  Sect 
may  properly  be  described  as  pantheistic  ;  but  in  fact  it 
regards  Amida  as  a  person.  While  it  recognizes  other 
Buddhas,  Amida  is  supreme — the  Buddha  of  Buddhas ; 
and  may  be  worshiped  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others. 
To  this  extent,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  to  be  non- 
polytheistic.  The  Jodo  Sect  teaches  also  that  human 
nature  is  depraved,  and  that  man  cannot  save  himself. 
He  can  be  saved  only  through  the  mercy  and  merits  of 
Amida.  To  this,  however,  it  should  be  added  that 
while  Christianity  lays  stress  upon  sin  in  its  relation  to 
righteousness,  in  Jodoism  stress  is  laid  rather  upon 
suffering  as  the  effect  of  the  transgression  of  eternal 
law.  In  Jodoism  it  may  also  be  fairly  said  that  there  is 
no  sense  of  personal  responsibility  to  a  personal  God. 

The  teaching  of  the  Zen  Sect  is  radically  different. 
According  to   its  tenets,  the  original   nature  of  mjin  is 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  263 

truth  and  goodness  ;  and  the  duty  of  man  is  to  return  to 
that  original  nature.  This  return  is  accomplished  by 
contemplation  and  discipline. 

The  Shingon  Sect  is  purely  pantheistic.  Every  man 
in  essence  is  Buddha. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Buddhist  Sects  are 
widely  separated  among  themselves.  But  all  Buddhists 
claim  that   fundamentally  all    the  sects  are  in  harmony. 

(3)  As  to  Confucianism  :  If  the  essential  element  in 
religion  is  a  personal  relation  between  man  and  a  per- 
sonal God,  it  may  be  said  in  general  that  Confucianism 
is  not  a  religion ;  though  there  are  Confucianists  who 
worship  a  personal  God  and  are  deeply  religious.  But 
Confucianism  has  its  foundation  in  the  moral  order  of 
the  universe;  and  its  end  is  the  establishment  of  what 
may  be  compared  to  the  Kingdom  of  God  upon  earth. 
It  therefore  lays  emphasis  upon  the  ethical  rather  than 
upon  the  more  strictly  religious;  and  its  teachings 
should  be  compared  with  the  ethical  rather  than  with 
the  religious  elements  in  Christianity. 

As  a  rule  the  Confucian  mind  is  much  more  easy  of 
access  to  Christianity  than  the  Buddhist  mind  ;  and  the 
explanation  is  that  Confucianism  is  far  more  ethical 
than  Buddhism.  The  Confucianist  honors  righteous- 
ness ;  the  Buddhist  is  far  more  given  to  seeking  an 
excuse  for  unrighteousness.  A  standing  proof  of  the 
greater  accessibility  of  Christianity  to  the  Confucius 
mind  is  to  be  found  in  the  progress  of  Christianity  in 
such  Prefectures  as  Kochi,  Okayama  and  Gumma,  as 
compared  with  its  progress  on  the  West  coast  where 
Buddhism  has  long  been  predominant. 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

In  Japan,  I  think,  the  question  chiefly  relates  to  Bud- 
dhism, because  all  will  agree  that  there  is  very  little 
likeness  between  Christianity  and  Shinto  or  Confu- 
cianism, unless  it  be  in  the  case  of  Shinto  the  emphasis 
laid   upon  the  purity  of   hearty  and  in  the  case    of   Con.- 


264      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

fucianism  the  great  importance  attached  to  benevolence 
and  justice.  But  these  teachings  are  rather  common  to 
all  ethical  systems  or  religions,  so  that  they  cease  to  be 
points  in  common  between  any  two  particular  religions. 

Now  to  come  back  to  Buddhism,  it  is  certainly  true 
that  there  are  some  striking  resemblances  between  Bud- 
dhism and  Christianity,  especially  Latin  Christianity. 
When  I  was  in  Rome  some  years  ago  and  went  with  my 
friend,  Bishop  Honda,  to  see  the  great  cathedral  of  St. 
Peter's,  as  soon  as  we  entered  it  I  said.  Why  this  is  just 
like  a  Buddhist  temple.  Not  only  the  shrines,  the 
images,  the  candles,  the  incense  and  the  priests  chant- 
ing their  prayers  and  the  people  bowing  before  the 
images,  but  the  whole  atmosphere  very  strongly 
reminded  me  of  the  Buddhist  temple  and  its  ritual  in 
Japan.  In  fact  I  did  not  for  the  moment  feel  as  though 
I  were  in  a  Christian  place  of  worship. 

I  could  also  cite  a  number  of  striking  resemblances 
between  the  legend  of  Gautama  and  the  life  of  Christ, 
which  are  well  known  to  all  scholars.  But  numerous 
and  striking  as  they  are,  these  resemblances  are  resem- 
blances only.  There  are  fundamental  differences  which 
make  these  two  religions  essentially  different.  For 
instance.  Buddhism  knows  nothing  about  the  Creator 
of  the  Universe  nor  of  the  Father  in  heaven.  They 
have  different  manifestations  or  personifications  like  the 
goddess  of  mercy  and  the  god  of  the  immovable,  but  a 
personal  God  in  the  Christian  sense  of  the  word  is 
entirely  foreign  to  Buddhism.  Consequently,  the  Bud- 
dhist conception  of  sin  is  very  different  from  that  of 
Christianity.  There  is  no  idea  of  transgressing  the  holy 
law  of  God.  Hence,  there  is  no  atonement,  no  cross  in 
Buddhism.  It  is  only  a  process  of  enlightenment, 
awakening  to  one's  true  self,  whatever  that  may  be. 

It  is  true  that  one  of  the  Buddhist  sects  teaches  some- 
thing like  salvation  by  faith, — faith  in  Amida  Buddha; 
and  the  followers  of  this  sect  say  that  there  is  no  essen- 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  265 

tial    difference   between  their   religion  and  Christianity, 
which  is  still    in  its    imperfect   stage    of   evolution,  etc.  - 
But   Buddhist   scholars    are    generally    agreed    that    the 
Shin  sect  is  not   true   Buddhrsm.      Salvation   by  faith  in 
Amida  is  quite   foreign   to  the  teaching  of   Sakya-muni. 

Tsen,  Cliina: — 

The  sparks  of  the  same  truth  are  in  all  religions, 
Christian  or  those  that  base  on  ethics  and  philosophy. 
The  points  of  community  are,  if  any,  on  the  moral 
side.  But  at  the  foundation  of  all  resemblances  there 
is  this  essential  difference,  that  all  ethnic  religions 
ultimately  aim  for  self,  whereas  the  religion  of  Christ, 
like  Christ,  ultimately  aims  for  atonement  of  self,  or 
better  humanity,  with  God,  by  Christ. 

Che-Kiang  Pastors,  China: — 

Although  there  are  points  of  similarity,  yet  the 
similarity  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  merely  human  ideas. 
In  reality  the  likeness  is  largely  a  seeming  likeness 
between  things  which  are  actually  different. 

Jaisohn,  Korea: — 

I  believe  there  are  many  religions  other  than  Chris- 
tianity that  expound  the  same  or  similar  moral  prin- 
ciples as  the  Christian  churches.  In  fact,  some  accept 
the  Old  Testament  in  its  entirety  as  the  inspired  truth, 
but  that  alone  does  not  make  them  Christian.  The 
foundation  of  Christianity  is  the  New  Testament,  which 
distinguishes  it  from  all  other  religions.  The  belief  in, 
and  obedience  of,  the  Ten  Commandments  or  the 
Golden  Rule  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  classify  a  man  as 
a  Christian.  He  must  believe  Jesus  as  his  only  Saviour 
before  he  can  be  called  a  Christian. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

Rules  of  conduct  are  often  the  same,  but  the  motive 
is  different,  fear  being  the  main  motive.  Salvation  by 
good  works  is  the  teaching  of  non-Christian  religions. 


^66      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


The  Proper 
Attitude  of 
Christianity 
Toward 
the  non- 
Christian 
Religions. 


Siraj  lid  Din,  India:  — 

They  are  not  as  numerous  as  thej  are  sometimes 
made  out,  especially  with  the  non-Semitic  religions,  and 
even  between  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism  there 
are  fundamental  differences. 

6.  What  should  be  the  j^i'oper.  attitude  of 
Christian  preachers  and  teachers  and  of  organized 
Christianity  in  Asia  to  the  non-Christian  reli- 
gions? Two  of  the  correspondents,  Justice 
Watanabe  and  Professor  Mukerji,  combined  their 
answers  to  several  of  the  questions,  and  their  very 
thoughtful  and  interesting  opinions  are  set  forth 
under  this  sixth  question. 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

In  general,  I  should  say  the  attitude  should  be  always 
friendly  and  kindly,  but  firm  ;  that  is  to  say,  while,  as 
'fellow  countrymen,  we  will  willingly  co-operate  in  our 
efforts  to  elevate  the  morality  and  civic  virtues  of  the 
people,  we  should  firmly  hold  our  position  as  Christians 
and  by  every  legitimate  means  try  to  convince  them  of 
the  truth  of  Christianity.  More  than  one  attempt  has 
been  made  to  form  a  sort  of  alliance  between  Buddhists 
and  Christians.  But  I  have  never  favored  it  nor  have 
they  amounted  to  anything. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

The  attitude  of  Christian  preachers  and  teachers 
toward  the  non-Christian  religions  of  Japan  should 
be  benevolently  belligerent,  sympathetically  suppressive. 

There  are  missionaries  who  anticipate  a  development 
of  Christian  theology  in  Japan  peculiar  to  Japan.  That 
there  will  be  such  a  development  is  not  unlikely;  but 
it  will  not  be  accelerated  or  aided  by  an  attempt  on  the 
part  of  missionaries  to  accommodate  themselves  or 
their    teachings    to    the    non-Christian    religions.     They 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  267 

will  best  serve  the  cause  of  Christian  theology  in  Japan 
by  being  themselves ;  by  teaching  the  Christianity  which 
they  hold  as  they  themselves  hold  it;  and  by  allowing 
Christian  theology  to  develop  historically  and  naturally. 
Christian  missionaries  are  not  called  upon  to  play  the 
part  of  either  mediators  or  eclectics. 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

What  is  true  in  the  non-Christian  religions  should 
be  willingly  recognized  ;  and  the  effort  made  to  lead  the 
mind  up  to  what  is  higher  and  better  in  Christianity. 
The  attitude  of  Christianity  should  be  that  of  an  elder 
to  a  younger  brother. 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

There  are  elements  of  truth  in  the  non-Christian 
religions  of  Japan,  and  the  Christian  teacher  should 
approach  them  in  the  spirit  of  charity.  But  he  should 
be  firm  in  his  adherence  to  the  truths  that  are  peculiar 
to  Christianity.  In  referring  to  Judaism,  Christ  said,  "I 
am  not  come  to  destroy  but  to  fulfill."  As  far  as  may 
be  possible,  the  Christian  teacher  in  Japan  should  be 
guided  by  His  example. 

Honda,  Japan: — 

The  Christian  preacher  and  teacher  should  be  respect- 
ful in  his  attitude  towards  the  non-Christian  religions, 
but  careful  not  to  compromise  the  distinctive  truths  of 
Christianity. 

Jaisohn,  Korea: — 

In  order  to  be  true  to  their  belief  and  their  profes- 
sion, the  Christian  teachers  should  point  out  intelli- 
gently and  truthfully  the  falsity  or  errors  of  other 
religions  to  those  whom  they  desire  to  convert,  but  at 
the  same  time  offensive  attack  on  other  religions  is  liable 
to  cause  more  harm  than  good.  Therefore,  a  mission- 
ary must  be  a  trained  diplomat  as  well  as  a  faithful 
servant  of  the  Church. 


268        THE   LIGHT   OF  THE   WORLD 

Kil,  Korea: — 

Avoid  disputings  and  contention.  Be  friendly  and 
courteous  and  bear  witness  bj  good  works  and  love  in 
the  teaching  of  truth  as  truth,  and  not  as  arguments  for 
the  intellectual  victory  over  an  antagonist.  Rely  upon 
the  application  of  the  truth  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  without 
argument  and  dispute.  Refer  to  one's  own  past  experi- 
ence in  becoming  enlightened  as  to  the  error  of  former 
belief  and  as  to  the  truth  of  Christianity. 

Tsen,  China: — 

The  proper  attitude  to  the  non-Christian  religions  in 
Asia  should  be  to  have  all  sympathy  with  them.  Give 
full  recognition  to  the  good  that  is  in  them  ;  show,  if 
necessary,  their  wants,  defects  and  corruptions  ;•  duly 
honor  their  founders  and  leaders;  help  along,  if  possible 
and  necessary,  and  wisely,  the  pure  charity  they  do  or 
attempt. 

Che-Kiang-  Pastors,  China: — 

Show  the  unreliableness  of  the  world  religions,  but 
present  the  truth  sympathetically  so  as  not  to  embarrass 
or  anger  the  hearer. 

Watanabe,  Japan : — 

With  regard  to  the  question  whether  it  is  advisable  to 
dwell  at  length  on  points  in  common  between  Chris- 
tianity and  other  religions — whether  a  great  deal  of  this 
community  is  not  apparent  rather  than  real — and 
whether  real  religious  progress  is  not  made  by  a 
process  of  triumphant  absorption,  I  am  inclined  to 
think  that  the  Japanese  adage,  ''Everybody  regards  his 
own  deity  as  most  holy"  (it  corresponds  to  the  Western 
proverb,  ''Everyone  thinks  his  own  geese  swans"), 
seems  to  be  a  pertinent  observation. 

As  we  Christians  believe  that  Christianity  is  a  divine 
revelation  from  the  Creator  of  the  universe  and  is  the 
only  religion  of  the  world,  so  Buddhists  believe  in  their 
creed.     We  firmly  believe   in   Christ's    own   words   that 


ASIA'S  OIVN  OPINION  269 

He  is  the  only  Son  of  God  ;  Buddhists  have  as  deep  a 
faith  in  Sakya's  proud  declaration,  ''Throughout  heaven 
and  earth  I  alone  am  holj." 

The  teachings  of  Confucius  may  not  properly  be 
called  a  religion  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  but  from 
ancient  times  they  have  exercised  influences  in  China 
and  Japan  amounting  almost  to  that  emanating  from  a 
religion.  Confucius  says,  ''Study  of  heresy  begets 
nothing  but  harm, "  and  Confucians  naturally  want  to 
exclude  all  teachings  but  those  of  Confucius.  There 
is  a  famous  work  dealing  with  the  matter  entitled 
"Bukkotsu  Hyo"  (Japanese  pronunciation),  and  written 
by  a  Chinese  literary  man  of  the  Tang  Dynasty.  I 
presume  that  a  similar  view  is  held  by  adherents  of 
all  other  religions. 

Therefore,  if  there  were  a  people  possessed  of  no 
religious  faith  at  all,  he  who  desired  to  preach  a  certain 
religion  to  them  would  not  need  to  dwell  upon  points 
of  harmony  of  that  religion  with  others,  nor  upon  those 
in  which  they  differed.  He  can  at  once  adopt  an  atti- 
tude of  triumphant  absorption  in  his  intercourse  with 
them.  When,  however,  he  wants  to  inspire  a  foreign 
faith  into  a  people  already  possessed  of  one  faith  or 
other,  it  will  not  be  enough  for  him  merely  to  preach 
his  own  faith  alone. 

I  may  illustrate  this  fact  with  a  supposititious  law- 
suit. Let  us  suppose  that  the  plaintiff  in  an  action 
insists  upon  some  theory  while  the  defendant  maintains 
another,  both  being  equally  desirous  of  a  victory.  Let 
us  further  suppose  that  the  judge  in  chai-ge  of  the  case 
thinks  that  both  theories  are  untenable  and  has  made 
up  his  mind  that  his  own  theory  must  be  produced  in 
order  to  do  justice  to  their  claims  and  bring  them  on 
good  terms  again.  With  this  end  in  view,  the  judge 
would  surely  only  lay  himself  open  to  disappointment 
did  he  merely  set  forth  his  own  theory  and  naively 
counsel  the  litigants  to  readjust  their  differences  on  the 


270       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

basis  of  his  theory.  For  each  of  the  litigants  is  equally 
confident  that  his  own  assertion  is  correct,  and  would 
refuse  to  do  as  bidden.  Then  what  is  done  by  the  judge 
before  pronouncing  his  decision?  Will  he  not  point 
out  in  what  respect  the  theories  of  the  litigants  agree, 
in  what  respect  they  disagree,  what  points  of  the  theory 
maintained  by  the  plaintiff  are  just  for  such  and  such  a 
reason,  what  points  of  the  theory  of  the  defendant  are 
unreasonable  because  of  such  and  such  a  case,  and 
therefore  that  what  they  ought  to  do  is  such  and  such  a 
thing?  If  he  did  so,  the  litigants  would  probably  accept 
his  ruling. 

On  the  contrary,  if  the  judge  abruptly  gave  a  dog- 
matic judgment  and  stated  that  whether  the  litigants 
were  disposed  to  obey  his  dictum  or  not  his  own 
opinion  was  such  as  he  had  given,  the  difference  would 
not  be  readjusted.  The  result  would  be  not  only  mis- 
fortune to  the  litigants  but  also  fai'ure  for  the  judge  in 
his  efforts.  Are  not  religious  matters  similar  to  the  case 
above  mentioned? 

I  do  not  think  that  Christianity  can  be  revealed  to 
non-Christians  in  any  better  way  than  by  showing  it  in 
its  true  and  sound  form.  I  believe  that  it  will  be  of  no 
use  wantonly  to  decorate  it  with  human  intellect.  There 
are  some  people  who  insist  that  Christianity  ought  to  be 
nationalized  in  the  country  Christians  are  desirous  of 
evangelizing,  but  I  think  that  such  an  opinion  is  not 
sound. 

I  deem  it  poor  preaching  to  place  too  much  stress 
upon  details  of  Christian  doctrines,  and  incidentally 
render  people  unable  to  catch  the  fundamental  and 
indispensable  spirit  of  our  religion.  I  think  we  find  the 
spirit  of  this  principle  clearly  set  forth  by  Christ  in  St. 
Mark,  Chapter  2d,  Verse  27.  ...  I  see  no  necessity  to 
dwell  continually  upon  points  in  common  between  Chris- 
tianity and  non-Christian  religions. 

Salvation  is  the  life  of  Christianity;  the  so-called 
redemption  of  the  world  of  Buddhism  appears  also  to  be 


ASIA'S  OJVN  OPINION  2?1 

its  life.  I  cannot  readily  enumerate  the  points  in  com- 
mon between  Christianity  and  other  religions,  but  I  do 
not  think  it  is  safe  to  say  that  there  is  no  fundamental 
community  of  principle,  but  only  an  apparent  one.  .  .  . 
It  is  most  important  for  Christians  to  hold  impartial 
views  towards  non-Christian  religions. 

Mukerji,  India: — 

The  Christian  preacher,  if  he  has  a  gospel  to  preach, 
must  believe  in  the  absolute  character  of  Christianity, 
and  not  that  it  is  merely  one  of  many  religions.  But  at 
the  same  time,  if  there  is  a  providential  order  of  the 
world  and  its  history  not  meaningless,  then  Christianity 
must  have  a  satisfying  answer  to  the  question  of  its 
relationship  to  the  other  religions;  it  cannot  be  an 
isolated  phenomenon  in  the  history  of  religions.  This 
relationship  is  not  one  of  similarities  only,  or  of  differ- 
ences only,  but  one  of  development.  Belief  in  the 
former  takes  away  from  the  uniqueness  of  Christianity, 
and  belief  in  the  latter  militates  against  the  unity  of 
history.  But  the  theory  of  development  preserves  both 
these  traits  for  Christianity.  Christianity,  by  the  way, 
has  nothing  to  fear  from  the  new  Science  of  Religions; 
a  truly  scientific  study  of  it  will  only  discover  the 
uniqueness  of  Christianity.  Sometimes  a  difference  is 
sought  to  be  made  out  in  Christian  work  between  the 
method  of  development  and  that  of  contrasts — the 
pointing  out  of  differences.  But  it  is  an  artificial  one, 
the  latter  being  included  in  the  former,  as  all  develop- 
ment is  the  bringing  out  of  something  new.  A  prima 
facie  case  for  this  difference  may  indeed  be  made  out 
from  the  present  partiality  on  the  part  of  the  upholders 
of  the  method  of  development  to  the  emphasizing  of 
similarities  as  against  differences.  But  this  is  not  at  all 
surprising,  as  we  always  find  progress  in  history  to  be  a 
swinging  between  extremes — and  the  pendulum  has 
indeed  at  the  present  moment  swung  to  the  former 
extreme,  that  of  emphasizing  similarities. 


272      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

For  this,  however,  there  are  ample  historical  reasons. 
In  the  first  flush  of  Western  culture  in  Eastern  lands, 
everything  Eastern  was  decried  and  nothing  good  was 
found  in  them ;  the  good  and  the  bad  being  blent  in 
one  common  condemnation.  But  soon  the  inevitable 
reaction  came  with  the  birth  of  nationalism  in  Eastern 
lands  ;  and  Christianity  herself  helped  it  on  by  putting 
the  non-Christian  faiths  on  their  mettle,  by  making 
them  slough  off  the  bad  and  throwing  them  more  and 
more  on  the  really  sound  in  their  religious  life.  People 
began  asking  themselves  the  question,  can  a  self-respect- 
ing nation  cut  itself  off  entirely  from  its  past  and  dis- 
card its  religious  inheritance  altogether?  Has  the  past 
no  meaning  for  us,  but  is  only  a  madman's  tale  full  of 
sound  and  fury  signifying  nothing?  It  was  to  meet 
such  a  mood  as  this  that  the  method  of  development 
came  into  vogue  in  Christian  work,  replacing  the  old 
method  of  wholesale  abuse  and  supercilious  criticism. 
One  aspect  of  this  method — that  of  pointing  out  sim- 
ilarities— might  have  been  over-emphasized  by  now,  but 
the  method  as  such  cannot  be  said  to  be  invalidated  by 
it,  but  always  shall  retain  its  place  and  use.  For  the 
mood  which  this  method  is  meant  to  meet  is  no  capri- 
cious mood,  but  an  eminently  just  one.  God  is  the 
Father  of  us  all, — though  of  the  Jew  first  and  the 
Gentile  afterwards, — and  has  not  left  His  people  at  any 
time  and  anywhere  without  witness.  He  has  been  in 
the  history  of  all  nations,  though  He  especially  chose 
the  Jews  for  His  Revelatiop  and  was  in  a  special  sense 
in  their  history.  The  great  apostle  to  the  Gentiles 
recognized  this  fact,  thus  setting  his  seal  to  the  method. 
When  speaking  to  the  Athenians  he  appealed  to  a  poet 
of  theirs  for  vindication  of  Christian  doctrine.  And  are 
we  forcing  things  when  we  read  a  wider  application  than 
was  meant  at  the  time  in  the  Master's  words,  ''I  came 
not  to  destroy  but  to  fulfill,"  and  think  that  there  must 
have  been  many  among  the  seers  and   prophets  of  non- 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  273 

Christian  religions  who  must  have  looked  forward,  as 
longingly  as  those  in  the  real  line  of  prophetical  suc- 
cession, to  the  days  of  Him  who  is  the  desire  of  the 
nations?  "For  he  that  doeth  truth  cometh  to  the  light, 
that  his  deeds  may  be  made  manifest  that  they  are 
wrought  in  God." 

But  the  method  of  development,  as  we  said,  is  not  a 
mere  emphasizing  of  similarities  only.  It  includes 
pointing  out  of  differences  also;  for  in  proceeding  from 
a  lower  to  a  higher  form,  much  that  is  old  is  left  behind 
and  much  that  is  new  absorbed.  And  here  comes  the 
place  for  criticism — the  method  of  contrasts.  The 
Apostle  Paul,  the  first  to  use  the  method  of  develop- 
ment, is  again  our  example  in  this.  While  seeking  to 
find  a  foothold  for  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  in  the 
national  Scriptures  of  the  people,  he  hesitated  not  to 
criticise  whatever  was  un-Christian  in  them;  e.  g.,  see 
Acts  xiv.  15;  xvii.  24;  xix.  19.  Criticism  can  also 
serve  the  purpose  of  pointing  out  the  differences  in 
agreements,  as  in  the  Hindu  and  Christian  doctrines  of 
Incarnation.  But  criticism,  if  it  is  not  to  be  misunder- 
stood, should  be  of  doctrines  only.  Any  criticism,  by 
foreigners  particularly,  of  the  personal  character  of  the 
religious  heroes  or  of  the  social  institutions  of  a  coun- 
try, or  disparaging  contrasts  of  these  with  those  of  the 
West,  will  be  fatal  and  defeat  the  preacher's  object. 

Christianity  is  the  fulfillment  of  all  religions.  This 
means  that  it  is  both  similar  and  dissimilar  to  other 
religions,  and  no  one  of  the  methods — that  of  pointing 
out  similarities  arid  of  differences — ought  to  be  used 
exclusively  of  the  other. 

Even  where  a  truth  is  in  common,  it  is  to  be  found  in 
a  fuller  and  richer  form  in  Christianity.  It  may  be 
further  added  that  in  proportion  as  religion  gets  to  be 
identified  with  philosophy  and  so  separated  from  life,  as 
in  the  case  of  Vedantism  in  India,  the  points  of  contact 
with   Christianity   grow   less.      In    such  a  case  a  person 


274      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

has  reasoned  himself  out  of  his  natural  beliefs,  as  to 
God,  man,  sin,  etc.,  and  so  is  intellectually  farther 
from  Christianity  than  one  who  believes  in  his  spiritual 
intuitions. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

Our  attitude  must  be  reverential  and  sympathetic,  and 
at  the  same  time  determinedly  exclusive,  giving  full 
credit  to  the  dictates  of  individual  conscience  and  dis- 
tinguishing between  those  people  who,  having  perceived 
the  truth  in  Christianity,  with  a  set  purpose  oppose  this 
truth,  and  those  who  oppose  it  because  they  do  not 
understand  it.  We  must  most  religiously  avoid  indulg- 
ing in  the  spirit  of  exultation,  glorying,  triumph, 
victory  over  the  defects  in  other  religions  and  particu- 
larly the  sins  of  their  followers. 

We  may  supple 'nent  the  evidence  of  these  cor- 
respondents at  this  point  by  the  testimony  of  Dr. 
Imad  ud  Din,  the  most  notable  convert  from 
Mohammedanism  in  India,  and  of  other  converts 
quoted  by  Dr.  H.  Martyn  Clark.  Dr.  Imad  ud 
Din  tells  us:  *'I  found  nothing  in  Mohammedan- 
ism from  which  an  unprejudiced  man  might  in 
his  heart  derive  true  hope  and  real  comfort, 
though  1  searched  for  it  earnestly  in  the  Koran, 
the  Traditions,  and  also  in  Sufiism.  Rites,  cere- 
monies, and  theories  I  found  in  abundance,  but 
not  the  slightest  spiritual  benefit  does  a  man  get 
by  acting  on  them.  He  remains  fast  held  in  the 
grip  of  darkness  and  death.  ...  I  discovered 
that  the  religion  of  Mohammed  is  not  of  God, 
and  that  the  Mohammedans  have  been  deceived, 
and  are  lying  in  error;  and  that  salvation  is 
surely  to  be  found  in  the  Christian   religion." 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  275 

It  must  be  recognized  that  this  is  the  general 
attitude  of  Christians  who  had  been  Moham- 
medans or  Hindus,  or  believers  in  some  other 
faith.      As  Dr.  H.  Martyn  Clark  says: — 

The  unanimity  of  all  converts  from  Islam  concerning 
that  religion  is  emphatic  and  startling.  "Earthly,  sen- 
sual, devilish,"  is  invariably  in  effect  their  deliverance. 
Not  one  of  them  has  ever  found  it  aught  else  but  an 
evil  and  debasing  thing.  They  have  not  felt  the  genial 
influences  or  vitalizing  power  of  any  of  the  truths  it  is 
supposed  to  contain.  The  statement  that  it  has  such 
truths  is  in  itself  a  revelation  to  them,  and  when  they 
hear  such  have  been  discovered  to  exist,  their  answ^er 
to  that  and  other  theories  now  rather  the  fashion  con- 
cerning Islam,  is  a  pitying  smile,  and  a  ''Well!  Well! 
It  was  our  faith  and  that  of  our  fathers  before  us;  we 
do  not  know  of  these  things,  nor  have  we  so  found  it." 
As  for  its  being  a  help  towards  God  and  good,  it  has 
been  their  sorest  hindrance  in  the  way  of  life.  It  has 
made  the  acceptance  of  Christian  truth  all  the  more 
difBcult,  and  the  Christian  life  infinitely  harder.  One 
of  the  best  native  pastors  said  :  ''After  many  years  of 
Christianity  the  poison  of  Mohammedanism  still  works 
in  our  muscles  and  makes  us  weak. "  They  err  who  think 
Islam  a  development,  an  advance  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  plane.  It  is  in  reality  a  retrogression,  a  degen- 
eration from  a  higher  to  a  lower  state.  I  took  one 
convert  to  task  for  his  unbridled  speech.  His  reply 
was:  "My  father,  you  can  afford  to  speak  kindly  of  the 
thing.  You  were  never  steeped  to  the  lips  in  that  mire 
as  I  have  been.  Were  it  not  for  God's  mercy,  where 
would  I  be  now?"  (From  the  "Church  Missionary 
Intelligencer,"  November,  1894:  "Some  Results  of  the 
Late  Mohammedan  Controversy,"  by  Dr.  H.  Martyn 
Clark,  p.  814  ff.) 


276      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


Has 

Christianity 
Penetrated 
the  Asiatic 
Mind?     Can 
It  Do  So? 


There  are  converts  who  take  a  different  atti- 
tude. A  friend  writes  from  India  of  a  Christian 
layman,  once  a  Mohammedan,  who  is  now  a 
great  champion  of  Christianity  as  against  the 
Moslem  religion  propaganda,  and  who  says: — 

I  have  been  proving  the  sublimitj  of  the  Christian 
religion  and  endeavoring  to  show  that  the  Christian 
counterpart  of  everything  good  in  doctrine  and  morality 
in  Islam  is  always  superior,  and  that  Mohammedanism, 
even  at  its  highest,  is  only  the  next  best,  and  that  from 
a  true  Koranic  point  of  view  the  religion  of  the  gospels 
is  open  to  no  question  whatever.  It  is  rather  the  goal 
to  which  all  the  religions  of  the  world  aspire  to  reach. 
My  conception  of  Islam  is  more  optimistic.  I  despair 
of  the  Islam  which  obtains  more  among  the  so-called 
Orthodox,  and  it  is  only  these  whose  weakness  I  would 
expose.  The  Islam  of  the  Koran,  with  its  Asian  Christ- 
ology,  is  a  fine  amalgam  of  Indiaism  and  Christianity. 
It  is  the  Nazarene  form  of  Christianity,  confounded  with 
certain  social  and  religious  prejudices  of  the  time  and 
the  country,  and  can  be  very  rightly  regarded  "rather 
as  a  heresy  than  as  an  alien  faith,"  but  not  more 
heretical  than  so  many  ancient  and  modern  ones. 

7.  How  far  has  Christianity  as  yet  actually 
touched  the  life  and  thought  of  any  Asiatic  land? 
Mr.  Meredith  Townsend,  in  "Asia  and  Europe, " 
holds  that  Asia  seems  condemned  by  some  fiat  of 
arrest;  that  while  capable  of  being  moved  by  self- 
generated  ideas,  she  seems  to  be  inaccessible  to 
new  forces  from  without;  that  "something  radi- 
cal, something  unalterable  and  indestructible 
divides  the  Asiatic  from  the  European.  .  .  . 
They  are  fenced  off  from  each  other  by  an  invis- 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  277 

ible,  impalpable  but  impassable  wall"  (''Asia 
and  Europe,"  pp.  36,  50,  150),  and  that  Chris- 
tianity cannot  hope,  accordingly,  to  displace  the 
non-Christian  religions  and  to  penetrate  the  life 
of  the  non-Christian  world.  What  do  you  think 
of  this  view? 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

How  anyone  Avho  knows  anything  of  the  history  of 
Japan  during  the  last  fifty  years  can  hold  that  ''Asia  is 
practically  inaccessible  to  new  principles"  I  cannot 
understand.  To  mention  only  one  out  of  many  things, 
the  entire  system  of  education  in  Japan,  from  the 
primary  school  to  the  university,  is  the  education  of  the 
West ;  and,  through  the  primary  school,  education  in 
Japan  is  compulsory.  If  Japan  accepts  the  education  of 
the  West,  why  should  it  be  inaccessible  to  Christianity? 
And  in  fact  it  is  not  inaccessible.  No  one  can  read  the 
newspapers,  the  current  literature,  even  the  novelj  of 
to-day,  without  seeing  and  feeling  that  Christianity  is 
already  in  Japan  as  a  recognized  and  steadily  increasing 
influence.  In  a  recent  issue  of  the  Jiji  Shimpo  (ane  of 
the  most  influential  newspapers  in  Japan)  the  editor 
said,  "While  as  yet  the  number  of  converts  to  Chris- 
tianity is  not  very  great,  Christian  ethical  ideas  and  the 
Christian  world-view  are  widely  spread  an.ong  the 
people."  To  which  it  may  be  added  that  the  steady 
growth  of  national  churches  is  an  effect  without  a  cause, 
if  Christianity  has  not  entered  the  life  of  Japan. 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

In  Japan  at  least  it  is  not  true  that  Christianity  can- 
not hope  to  penetrate  the  life  of  the  people.  Already 
Christian  ethics  are  widely,  almost  universally,  recog- 
nized as  the  highest  ethical  standard.  To  refer  to  one 
particular,  the  Christian  teaching  regarding  sexual 
purity    has    profoundly   impressed   the   Japanese   mind. 


278      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

To  a  marked  degree  both  Shintoism  and  Buddhism  have 
been  influenced  bv  Christian  ideas.  Buddha  is  more  and 
more  conceived  of  as  personal.  The  teaching  concern- 
ing Nirvana  is  becoming  colored  with  the  teaching 
regarding  the  Kingdom  of  God.  The  duty  of  making 
this  present  world  a  paradise  is  now  taught.  The  spirit 
of  optimism  is  displacing  the  spirit  of  pessimism.  The 
practical  methods  of  Christianity  are  beginning  to  be 
imitated.  Services  are  held  on  Sundays  and  prayer 
meetings  are  held.  I  almost  feel  like  saying  that  in  a 
real  sense  Buddhism  is  becoming  leavened  with  Chris- 
tianity. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

Nothing  is  clearer  than  that  in  many  ways  Chris- 
tianity is  already  entering  the  life  of  Japan.  In  speak- 
ing to  intelligent  people  the  Christian  preacher  now 
seldom  even  refers  to  the  folly  of  idol  worship. 
Formerly,  in  speaking  of  God,  it  was  commonly  nec- 
essary to  dwell  upon  his  unity  and  spirituality;  now,  at 
least  among  those  of  some  education,  the  word  God  has 
come  itself  to  carry  with  it  this  conception  of  his 
nature.  Far  more  than  used  to  be  the  case,  one  may 
address  men  much  as  unconverted  men  are  addressed  in 
America  or  England.  The  reading  of  foreign  literature 
has  done  much  to  make  Christian  ideas  familiar;  and 
has  awakened  in  many  a  real  interest  in  Christian  books. 
Many  who  are  not  Christians  read  Christian  sermons 
and  understand  them.  It  may  interest  you  to  know  that 
Robertson  and  Beecher  are  favorites  among  the  Shinto 
and  Buddhist  priests.  Buddha  is  not  only  more  and 
more  thought  of  as  personal  by  Buddhist  teachers, — he 
is  so  described  by  them  in  their  teaching.  The  pessi- 
mistic view  of  life  is  giving  way  to  one  that  is  more 
optimistic.  Shinto  and  Buddhist  priests  officiate  at 
weddings,  a  thing  new  under  the  sun.  There  are  Bud- 
dhist Sunday  schools,  and  Buddhist  hymns  sung,  and 
the  melody   of   organs.     They  have    also   borrowed   the 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  279 

Taikyo  Dendo  (sometimes  translated  Forward  Move- 
ment). But  besides  all  these  things,  all  of  which  are 
significant  and  some  deeply  so,  there  are  the  Christian 
churches,  some  of  them  more  than  thirty  years  old, 
many  of  them  financially  independent,  and  occupying 
all  the  most  important  centers  in  the  empire.  This 
then  is  the  present  situation.  There  are  the  Christian 
churches  recognized  by  all  as  a  constantly  growing 
force;  and  around  the  churches  there  is  a  far  larger 
body— te"n  times  as  large  and  more — -.interested  in  Chris- 
tianity, and  consciously  or  unconsciously  moving 
towards  it.  To  say  that  Christianity  cannot  penetrate 
the  life  of  Japan  is  to  contradict  what  to  anyone  with 
eyes  to  see  is  a  perfectly  plain  fact. 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

Meredith  Townsend,  it  does  seem  to  me,  is  entirely 
wrong  in  his  statement.  Does  not  the  political  history 
of  Japan  for  the  past  forty  years  show  that  the  Japanese 
are  not  altogether  "inaccessible  to  new  principles?" 
Does  not  history  also  show  that  Christianity  has  some- 
what "penetrated  the  life"  of  some  Japanese?  Was  not 
Neesima  a  Christian?  Does  Meredith  Townsend  forget 
the  fact  that  three  hundred  years  ago  hundreds  of 
Japanese  Christians,  men,  women  and  even  children, 
suffered  martyrdom,  when  they  were  given  a  free  choice 
between  death  and  the  denial  of  their  Saviour?  What 
more  could  you  ask  of  them?  As  for  me,  I  have  no 
need  for  their  martyrdom  in  proof  of  their  faithfulness 
to  their  Master.  I  have  stood  by  the  deathbed  of  more 
than  one  Japanese  Christian  and  witnessed  such  calm 
triumphant  death  that  left  not  a  particle  of  doubt  in  my 
mind  as  to  their  living  faith  in  Christ. 

Watanabe,  Japan: — 

I  am  convinced  that  Christianity  has  already  pro- 
duced no  small  effect  on  the  lives  of  Asiatics,  especially 
of  Japanese.  Chinese  are  naturally  not  versatile,  not 
only  in  religions  but  in  all  other  matters,  and    they  will 


280       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

require    a   great   deal    of    time    in    order   to    adopt   new 

principles.      I    doubt,    however,   whether    Mr.    Meredith 

I      Townsend    did    not   go  a  little  too  far  when  he  declared 

;      that     Christianity    cannot    hope    to    penetrate    the    life 

of  Asia. 

It  is  with  very  much  regret  that  I  have  to  admit  that 
from  the  numerical  point  of  view  Japanese  Christians 
cannot  claim  to  any  high  consideration.  There  are 
many  reasons  why  Christianity  has  not  more  adherents 
in  Japan  than  it  has  at  present.  Historically,  Chris- 
tianity had  to  suffer  from  a  national  prohibition  until 
about  half  a  century  ago,  and  there  are  some  Japanese 
who,  not  knowing  its  doctrines  at  all,  have  an  almost 
instinctive  dislike  of  Christianity;  some  look  upon  it  as 
opposed  to  our  state  form ;  and  others,  though  fairly 
well  informed  that  Christianity  is  an  excellent  religion, 
are  ashamed  to  accept  the  gospels  and  will  not  follow  it. 
These  conditions  are  apparently  not  peculiar  to  Japanese 
alone. 

Even  among  non-Christians,  however,  that  Chris- 
tianity is  an  excellent  religion  is  often  recognized,  and 
they  are  being  involuntarily  influenced  by  Christian  life 
in  no  small  degree.  For  example,  there  are  now  indi- 
cations that  people  in  Japan  will  not  keep  concubines 
openly  as  of  old  ;  they  have  come  to  pay  more  regard  to 
family  peace,  and  the  vicious  habit  of  supposing  hard 
drinking  and  lewdness  essential  qualifications  of  a  hero 
and  a  great  man  is  gradually  decaying.  It  is  worthy  of 
note  that  charitable  enterprises  under  Christian  manage- 
ment are  being  assisted  by  willing  hands  ever  increasing 
in  number.  We  may  well  regard  all  this  as  a  boon 
coming  from  advanced  civilization,  but  it  also  arises 
partly  from  Christian  influences. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

Mr.  Townsend  does  not  understand  Asia.  The 
influence  already  exerted  upon  Korea,  Japan  and  China 
is  simply  tremendous,  and  the  most  thoughtful  scholars 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  281 

all  recognize  it,  and  more  and  more  are  saying  that 
there  can  be  no  real  deep,  lasting  reform  without 
Christianity.  The  whole  people  here  realize  that  it  has 
been  a  blessing  to  them. 

Jaisohn,  Korea: — 

In  answer  to  your  further  inquiries  as  to  how  far 
Christianity  has  actually  touched  the  life  of  any  Asiatic 
country,  I  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  one  fact  which 
demonstrates  what  Christianity  has  done  in  Asia.  The 
fact  I  have  in  mind  is  the  treatment  of  the  Russians 
captured  by  the  Japanese  during  the  recent  war.  Japan 
is  not  as  yet  called  a  Christian  nation,  but  she  acted  in 
a  most  Christian-like  manner  during  the  war  towards 
her  unfortunate  adversaries.  To  what  may  we  attribute 
this  humane  act  on  the  part  of  Japan?  I  believe  it  was 
the  influence  of  Christianity  which  prompted  her  to  be 
so  kind  and  generous  to  her  fallen  foes.  There  is  much 
room  left  in  Japan  for  improvement,  but  whenever  she 
does  things  the  right  way  we  ought  to  give  her  due 
credit. 

I  do  not  agree  with  Mr.  Meredith  Townsend  in  his 
view  as  to  the  inability  of  Christianity  to  penetrate  the 
non-Christian  world.  There  are  abundant  proofs  that  it 
has  already  penetrated  these  regions  and  it  will  continue 
to  do  so.  Soon  after  the  recent  calamity  in  Sicily, 
Japan  sent  $50,000  to  Italy,  and  even  poor  Korea  sent 
her  mite  for  the  unfortunate  victims  in  far  away  Sicily. 
These  things  indicate  that  Christianity  has  quietly  and 
unknowingly  leavened  the  hearts  of  people  throughout 
the  world. 

Tsen,  China: — 

I  know  that  Chinese  life  is  greatly  touched  by  Chris- 
tianity directly  and  indirectly.  The  decisive  actions  of 
the  nation  in  the  suppression  of  opium  smoking  and  of 
footbinding  of  women  are  directly  and  almost  entirely 
through  Christian  efforts.     A  public  sentiment  has  long 


282      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

been  prepared  to  render  the  two  actions  possible.  Anti- 
opium  movement  is  as  old  as  the  Protestant  missions 
or  the  opium  trade  itself.  Though  there  had  been  anti- 
footbinding  edicts  since  the  present  dynasty,  Mrs. 
Little's  endeavors  since  about  1895  are  really  the  first 
that  were  proved  effective,  at  first  among  the  Christians 
and  then  followed  by  non-Christian  women.  There  are 
non-Christians,  men  and  women,  that  form  societies  to 
fight  this  evil  custom.  At  present  the  ''natural  foot" 
has  become  prevalent  and  fashionable.  Our  Christian 
Sabbath  has  been  adopted  as  holidays  all  over  the 
empire.  It  began  to  be  printed  on  Chinese  calendars 
along  with  other  superstitions  about  fourteen  years  ago. 
Our  hospitals  and  other  charitable  works  have  been 
much  appreciated  and  followed.  All  that  is  connected 
with  idol  worship  is  decidedly  declining.  A  Taoist 
priest  told  me  himself  of  the  decaying  of  Taoism. 
Most  of  the  modern  reforms  were  begun  by  mission- 
aries, by  their  institutions,  their  books  or  through 
scholars  who  got  into  some  connection  with  them, 
though  they  became  widespread  or  generally  desired 
when  China  was  wakened  by  her  foreign  wars  and  her 
foreign  students  returned.  The  galvanization  of  the 
scholastic  (or  higher)  Buddhism  by  those  reformers,  the 
new  and  increased  Confucian  worship,  the  elevation  of 
Confucius  to  a  degree  almost  equal  to  the  Chinese 
regard  of  heaven,  while  there  are  other  causes  for  them, 
are  due  to  a  good  extent  to  a  reaction  against  the  pro- 
gressive Christianity. 

Mukerji,  India: — 

Mr.  Tovvnsend  represents  the  views  of  Anglo-Indians 
whose  interest  it  is  to  make  out  Asiatic  people  to  be 
quite  different  from  Europeans,  and  so  retard  their 
progress  towards  representative  government  and  national 
independence. 

To  speak  for  India  onlj',  Christianity  has  already 
revolutionized  the  thousht  and    leavened   the  life  of   the 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  283 

country.  Much  of  the  unrest  in  the  land  to-day  could 
be  traced  to  it.  Religion  is  shifting  from  its  pantheistic 
position  to  theism  ;  it  has  come  to  be  social  instead  of 
merely  self-regarding;  the  spirit  of  brotherhood  and 
Christian  liberty  is  gaining  ground  in  social  matters, 
and  the  former  conception  of  morals  as  relative  is 
giving  way  to  a  belief  in  its  absolute  character. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

In  the  sense  of  the  acceptance  of  Christ  as  a  Saviour, 
no  land  as  such  has  been  touched.  There  are  only 
individuals,  and  their  number  is  small.  Wholesale 
baptisms  are  sometimes  administered  with  very  little 
teaching,  or  true  conversion,  simply  in  the  hope  that 
the  children  of  those  converts  will  be  true  Christians. 

As  regards  the  leavening  of  the  non-Christian  reli- 
gions, there  is  no  doubt  that  several  Asiatic  lands, 
including  India,  have  been  touched.  As  an  evidence 
we  might  mention  marked  and  extensive  movements  in 
India,  within  the  non-Christian  religions,  incorporating 
the  ideals  of  Christianity,  e.  g.  :  — 

(1)  The  Arya  Samaj,  with  its  teaching  about  mono- 
theism. 

(2)  The  Brahmo  Samaj — Universal  brotherhood  of 
man,  and  the  Fatherhood  of  God. 

(3)  Sir  Sayid  Ahmad's  Sect,  called  Naturalists 
(quasi-deists  or  deists),  with  its  emphasis  on  monogamy, 
and  condemnation  of  divorce  and  of  extreme  purdah  as 
practiced  in  Islamic  countries. 

(4)  Mirza  of  Kadian's  Sect,  with  its  teaching  about 
"The  Masil-i-Masih"  (/.  e.,  the  Mirza  was  like  Christ) 
and  "the  Holy  Ghost" — and  that  men  should  either 
deny  the  supernatural  ascension  of  our  Saviour  or 
acknowledge  the  superiority  of  His  religion. 

(5)  A  class  of  Mohammedans  (including  Mohammed 
Hasan  Amrohi,  a  translator  and  commentator  of  the 
Koran)  who  accept  the  Christian  Scriptures  as  they  are 
to  be  the  word  of  God. 


284       THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

(6)  Finally  mention  might  be  made  of  Mohammed 
Igbal,  Ph.D.,  Professor  of  the  Lahore  Government 
College,  who,  in  a  pamphlet  on  the  Unity  of  God, 
acknowledges  the  deep  meaning  in  the  Christian  Trinity 
and  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement. 

Is  Humanity  8-    Is  there   such  a  racial   chasm  between  East 

Two  or  One?  and  West  as  is  represented,  or  is  the  common 
talk  about  such  a  chasm  groundless?  Are  there 
not  many  Orientals  and  Occidentals  who  under- 
stand each  other  and  who  have  more  In  common 
than  either  Orientals  or  Occidentals  have  among 
themselves } 

Honda,  Japan: — 

There  are  differences  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
but  it  is  a  very  extreme  statement  to  say  that  there  is 
something  like  a  chasm  between  them.  There  are  many 
Japanese  and  foreigners  who  enter  into  each  others 
feelings,  understand  each  other  perfectly,  and  have 
been  close    personal    friends    for  years. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

There  is  no  racial  chasm;  and  the  old  feeling  of 
antagonism  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  There  are  differ- 
ences, but  they  are  disappearing,  and  they  will  dis- 
appear altogether  as  Japan  and  the  West  come  closer 
together  socially. 

Watanabe,  Japan: — 

I  believe  that  the  common  talk  of  racial  chasm 
between  East  and  West  is  no  fiction.  I  am  disposed  to 
think  that  such  a  chasm,  if  it  does  exist,  owes  its  exist- 
ence more  to  Occidentals  than  to  Orientals.  Such 
racial  chasm  between  Christians,  however,  is  very  nar- 
row, and  I  am  glad  to  note  signs  that  the  homely 
clause  "all  men  are  brothers"  is  gradually  becoming  a 
fact  among  them. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  285 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

There  is  no  racial  chasm  between  the  East  and  the 
West.  More  and  more  the  Japanese  are  entering  into 
the  feelings  and  looking  at  things  from  the  point  of 
view  of  the  West;  rejoicing  with  those  that  rejoice  and 
weeping  with  those  that  weep. 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

There  are  differences  between  the  East  and  the  West, 
and  there  are  differences  between  the  nations  of  Europe, 
but  certainly  it  is  true  that  Japan  and  the  West  are 
drawing  closer  together.  This  could  not  be  true  if  there 
were  a  ''chasm"  between  them.  So  far  as  individuals 
are  concerned,  there  are  many  Japanese  and  Americans 
who  think  of  each  other  only  as  old  friends. 

Ibuka,  Japan: — 

Everybody  will  admit  that  there  are  differences 
between  the  East  and  the  West.  Not  only  are  their 
language,  customs  and  their  modes  of  thinking  differ- 
ent;  they  are  different  in  their  traits  of  character.  And 
these  are  the  things  which  first  strike  the  eye  of  the 
tourist.  Pretty  much  everything  here  seems  to  begin  in 
the  reverse  order  or  be  upside  down;  for  instance,  in 
one's  address  you  have  first  the  city,  then  the  ward, 
then  the  street,  then  the  number,  then  the  family  name 
and  the  given  name  last.  How  strange!  What  a  queer 
people!  They  could  never  understand  us.  Their  mind 
must  work  differently  from  ours.  So  they  gather,  so 
they  write ;  and  the  report  spreads  over  the  world. 
This  is  the  tourist's  view  of  Orientals.  But  all  those 
Americans  or  Europeans  who  have  lived  here  long 
enough  and  have  studied  the  language  and  the  history 
of  the  people,  and  have  come  in  close  contact  with  them, 
will  readily  admit  that  after  all  at  the  bottom  they  are 
very  much  like  themselves.  Tbe  difference  is  only  skin 
deep. 


^86      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Jaisobn,  Korea: — 

There  is  no  question  as  to  racial  differences.  The 
inhabitants  of  every  country  have  their  peculiar  char- 
acteristics and  even  the  people  of  the  different  sections 
in  the  same  country  entertain  different  ideas  and  possess 
different  emotions.  But  one  fact  we  must  always 
remember,  and  that  is  we  all  belong  to  one  human  race. 
We  are  only  different  in  the  minor  details.  The  races 
of  man  living  apart  in  far  distant  parts  of  the  globe 
naturally  do  not  understand  one  another,  and  what  one 
says  or  does  may  appear  queer  to  the  other.  But  if  they 
were  both  brought  up  and  educated  in  the  same  manner, 
I  believe  they  would  say  or  do  about  the  same  way  and 
in  the  same  manner,  unless  one  is  endowed  with  more 
natural  gifts  than  the  other.  I  believe  the  leavening 
influence  of  Christianity  and  the  constant  increase  of 
facilities  for  travel  and  communication  will  eliminate 
the  apparent  chasm  which  exists  between  the  different 
races. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

There  is  no  such  chasm.  How  could  there  be  such 
between  Christians?  There  is  a  far  greater  separation 
between  Japanese  and  Koreans  than  between  Koreans 
and  Westerners,  and  the  Koreans  express  themselves  far 
more  readily  and  trust  themselves  more  fully  to 
Westerners  than  to  Japanese. 

Tsen,  China: — 

Yes,  there  is  a  natural  chasm  between  Orientals  and 
Occidentals  in  the  ways  of  living  and  in  the  ways  of 
thinking,  but  it  is  not  at  all  an  impassable  one,  imposs- 
ible to  be  healed  up  by  constant  intercommunication. 
For  man  is  a  spiritual  and  ethical  being.  When  the 
hearts  are  right,  the  outward  things  matter  nothing. 
There  are  cases  of  the  greatest  friendship  between  Occi- 
dentals and  Orientals.  And  it  seems  to  me  the  success 
of   the   missionary  work  is  in  direct   proportion   to  the 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  287 

degree  of   the  mutual  understanding  and    spiritual   rela- 
tion between  the  foreign  and  native  workers. 

Mukerji,  India: — 

There  is  a  racial  chasm  between  the  East  and  the 
West,  and  the  part  of  wisdom  is  to  recognize  it  and  not 
slur  it  over.  Perfect  understanding  can  exist  only 
between  equals,  and  so  long  as  the  East  continues  in  her 
present  condition  of  political  subjection  to  the  West, 
things  will  not  be  materially  improved. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

No  one  but  a  superficial  observer  of  things,  and  no 
one  who  understands  human  nature  and  the  real  signif- 
icance and  depths  of  humanity,  can  for  a  moment 
assert  that  there  is  an  impassable  gulf  between  the 
East  and  the  West.  The  visible  chasm  is  due,  to  a  large 
extent,  to  the  providential  but  temporary  relation 
between  the  ruling  Anglo-Saxon  race  and  the  subject 
people. 

One  touch  of  nature  is  enough  to  make  the  whole 
world  akin!  But  here  there  is  exceedingly  more  than  a 
touch  of  nature.  There  is  the  common  ground  of  the 
entire  depth  of  man's  moral  and  spiritual  nature. 
Therefore  no  one  but  he  whose  mental  vision  cannot  go 
deeper  than  the  skin,  would  seriously  make  an  assertion 
like  that. 

Yes,  I  know,  from  personal  observation,  of  cases 
where  there  has  been  more  real  intimacy  and  true  fel- 
lowship between  a  European  or  an  American  and  an 
Indian  than  between  two  Europeans  or  Americans. 

9.    Is   the  Christianity,  not   of  the   Church  nor  ig  Ckris- 

of  the  West,  but  of  the  New  Testament,  the  final  tianity  in 

and  absolute  religion  for  men,  or  is  it  to  be  modi-  Need  of 

fied  by  contact  with  the  non-Christian  religions?  ^"""^^^"^  °'' 

Enricnment 

Ibuka,  Japan :—  by  the  non- 

This  is  a  most    important   and    interesting   question.    Christian 
It  will    be  admitted  at   once   by  all    Christians   that   the    Religions? 


288      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Christianity  of  the  New  Testament,  or  the  Christianity 
as  Christ  taught  it,  is  the  final  religion  of  man,  and  that 
it  is  not  to  be  inodified  or  iinproved  upon  by  coming 
into  contact  with  any  other  religions.  But  the  real 
question  is  whether  the  truth  taught  by  Jesus  has  been 
already  apprehended  in  all  its  fullness  by  the  different 
races  and  nations  which  have  come  under  its  influence. 
We  all  know  that  there  are  different  types  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  that  the  Greek  type  of  Christianity  differs 
from  that  of  the  Latin  and  that  that  again  differs  from 
the  Teutonic.  We  all  know  also  that  one  type  is 
superior  to  another  in  some  respects,  and  inferior  to  it 
in  others,  each  contributing  something  towards  the 
realization  of  the  ideal.  Now  the  question  before  us  is, 
Has  the  Japanese  nation  with  its  history  and  character- 
istics something  really  to  contribute,  so  that  in  the 
course  of  time  there  will  be  a  distinct  type  of  Chris- 
tianity, even  what  may  be  called  the  Japanese  type? 
This  is  a  question  which  it  seems  to  me  history  alone 
can  answer.  It  is  easy  enough  in  regard  to  the  external 
forms  of  Christianity  to  predict  that  they  will  be 
different — indeed  they  already  are  to  some  extent — 
from  those  developed  in  the  West ;  c.  ^.,  the  forms  of 
church  government,  worship,  etc.  But  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  forecast  whether  the  Japanese  mind  will  have 
something  (not  of  course  any  new  truth,  but  a  deeper 
apprehension  of  the  truth,  new  insight  into  the  truth, 
and  the  new  emphasis  put  upon  it)  to  contribute  toward 
the  full-orbed  realization  of  Christianity.  If  it  is  des- 
tined to  do  so,  I  think  it  will  be  along  the  ethical  or 
practical  lines  rather  than  the  theological  or  meta- 
physical. Japan  has  produced  no  Plato  or  Aristotle; 
and  whether  the  Church  is  going  to  have  its  Origen  or 
Augustine  is  altogether  problematical.  A  short  time 
ago  I  was  asked  whether  we  were  going  to  have  a  Jap- 
anese theology ;  and  my  reply  was,  before  we  could 
have  Japanese  theology  we  must  have  Japanese  theo- 
logians. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  289 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

If  by  Christianity  is  meant  the  religious  conscious- 
ness of  Christ,  then  Christianity  is  the  final  religion. 
But  it  seems  to  me  that  that  consciousness  is  a  thing  of 
growing  apprehension;  not  perfectly  apprehended  by 
the  Apostles  themselves,  and  after  now  nearly  two 
thousand  years  not  even  yet  so  apprehended.  But  I 
think  that  in  the  future  it  will  come  to  be  perfectly 
apprehended,  and  will  be  the  final  religion  for  man. 

Uemura,   Japan: — 

The  Christianity  of  the  New  Testament  is  the  final 
religion  of  man;  neither  to  be  modified  nor  supple- 
mented by  contact  with  the  non-Christian  religions. 

But  Christ  is  greater  than  any  thought  regarding 
Him.  He  is  always  coming.  In  a  true  sense  He  is  still 
an  undiscovered  country.  In  Him  are  all  the  treasures 
of  wisdom  and  knowledge  hidden  ;  and  in  the  contact  of 
Christianity  with  the  thought  of  the  Orient  some  of  the 
things  of  Christ  will  be  brought  into  a  clearer  light 
than  ever  before,  and  the  nations  will  walk  in  that  light. 

In  the  thought  of  Japan,  for  example,  there  is  a  one- 
ness—a solidarity — in  both  the  family  and  the  state  that 
is  not  present  to  the  thought  of  the  West.  That  deep 
sense  of  oneness  will  easily  extend  from  the  family  and 
the  state  to  the  race ;  and  it  will  give  to  the  incarnation 
and  the  vicarious  atonement  a  new  depth,  a  new  reason- 
ableness, a  new  hold  upon  the  mind.  As  never  before, 
they  will  be  seen  to  be  the  wisdom  and  power  of  God ; 
and  with  the  new  light  there  will  flow  from  them  a  new 
river  of  life.  It  is  often  said  that  the  incarnation  and 
the  vicarious  atonement  are  peculiarly  foreign  to  the 
Japanese  mind.  Apparently  that  is  so,  but  only  appar- 
ently. The  future  will  show  that  in  reality  the  opposite 
is  true.  My  own  belief  is  that  Christian  theology  in 
Japan  has  before  it  a  development  that  will  be  a  real 
contribution  to  Christian  thought;  but  it  will  not  be  by 
borrowing  from  the  non-Christian  religions  or  by 
accommodating  itself  to  them. 


290      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Honda,  Japan: — 

It  may  be  that  the  Japanese  mind  will  find  in  Chris- 
tianity certain  elements  to  which  it  will  be  drawn  with 
peculiar  power,  and  to  which  it  will  give  an  emphasis 
of  its  own;  though  just  what  those  elements  are  is  not 
jet  evident.  But  that  the  essentials  of  Christianity  will 
be  modified  or  supplemented  by  contact  with  the  non- 
Christian  religions  is  unlikely,  and  any  such  result 
would  be  a  loss  and  not  a  gain. 

Watanabe,  Japan: — 

According  to  our  conviction,  there  is  no  religion  in 
the  world  of  to-day  better  than  Christianity,  but  Chris- 
tianity in  its  present  form  cannot  possibly  claim  to  have 
perfectly  discovered  Christ's  genuine  nature.  We 
believe  that  there  will  come  a  time  when  Christianity 
will  reveal  Christ  better  than  in  these  days.  We  are 
unable,  however,  to  predict  in  what  way  or  by  what 
process  that  evolution  will  be  attained. 

Kil,  Korea: — 

The  final  perfect  religion,  because  no  man,  however 
gifted,  can  add  anything  to  the  Scriptures,  and  no  com- 
bination is  satisfactory.  The  Korean  Christians  resent 
the  preaching  which  is  not  Scriptural  but  merely  philo- 
sophical or  historical,  saying  that  such  is  not  "preach- 
ing" (kang-to)  but  ''lecturing"  (yun-sul). 

Tsen,  China: — 

The  Christian  religion,  pure  and  simple,  is  one  left 
on  earth  by  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  all  in  principle  and 
not  in  any  kind  of  detail.  And  yet  it  is  all  perfect  and 
final,  but  just  as  an  infant  is  a  perfect,  well-formed 
human  being.  The  infant  has  to  take  food  in  material 
form,  plant  food  or  animal  food,  to  convert  the  same 
into  the  child,  to  make  them  part  of  it.  So  has  Chris- 
tianity to  take  in,  reform,  convert,  yea  sanctify  all  the 
good  customs,  rites,  conceptions,  morals  and  doctrines 
pf  alJ  other  religions,  or  originated  from  them.     When 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  291 

that  which  is  perfect  is  come,  that  which  is  in  part — 
knowledge  of  God  and  truth — shall  be  done  away  in  the 
gradual  process  of  assimilation  and  perfection. 

Mukerji,  India: — 

The  questioner  has  in  view,  I  believe,  the  loose  talk 
of  Western  and  Eastern  Christianity,  and  the  like.  The 
method  of  presenting  Christianity  will  doubtless  change 
with  the  country  and  the  times,  but  not  the  body  of  the 
message.  The  questioner  is  right  in  refusing  to  accept 
anything  as  the  norm  of  Christianity  except  the  New 
Testament  Christianity.  Sometimes  one  hears  in  India 
the  statements  that  the  Gospel  of  John  is  more  suited 
to  the  genius  of  the  people  than  that  of  the  Synoptics. 
Back  of  it  is  the  feeling,  I  suspect,  that  salvation  in 
John  is  through  knowledge  and  not  the  atonement,  and 
that  the  body  of  the  Gospel  message  needs  revising. 
It  will  be  time  enough  to  think  of  such  an  attempt 
when  we  have  manufactured  another  Gospel. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  India: — 

Yes,  I  believe  the  revelation  of  God  as  presented  in 
the  New  Testament  to  be  complete  and  final.  From 
the  contact  with  the  East  there  can  result  no  modifica- 
tion in  the  sense  of  addition  or  alteration.  But  our 
eyes  need  being  opened  more  and  more  to  the  vision  of 
the  Christ,  not  only  the  Christ  who  lived  on  this  earth 
two  thousand  years  ago,  but  the  eternal  Christ  who  is 
from  the  beginning,  the  Logos,  the  Creator,  the  true 
Light  which  lighteth  every  man  that  cometh  into  the 
world,  the  Christ  who  is  the  desire  of  all  nations ;  and 
this  enlargement  of  vision  will  surely  result  from  an 
Oriental-Occidental  interpretation  of  the  primarily 
Oriental  Christ.  The  contact  between  the  East  and  the 
West  will  result  in  the  discovery  of  deep  and  philo- 
sophic meanings  in  the  fundamental  truths  of  Chris- 
tianity, such  as  the  trinity,  the  atonement  and  the 
incarnation.  So  far  as  these  doctrines  are  ever  going 
to  be  scientifically  or  philosophically  demonstrated,  the 


292       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Oriental  thought  will  mightily  help  this  demonstration. 
Particularly  Sufiism  among  the  Mohammedans  and 
Vedantism  among  the  Hindus  will  greatly  enrich  and 
expand  the  Occidental  conception  of  these  truths  of 
Oriental  birth.  In  fact  these  truths,  with  their  wonder- 
ful demonstrations,  already  exist  both  in  the  Hindu  and 
the  Mohammedan  religions,  buried  under  the  mass  of 
other  teachings.  How  they  came  there  is  perhaps  as 
mysterious  and  inscrutable  as  the  nature  of  these  sacred 
truths,  but  they  are  there.  In  the  contact  between  the 
East  and  the  West,  the  West  will  discover  the  deep 
philosophic  meaning  of  which  the  reality  has  been 
divested  for  so  long,  and  the  East  will  discover  the 
reality  which  alone  can  give  significance  to  these  truths 
so  precious  to  the  Oriental  soul. 

TKe  It  appears,  accordingly,  that  these  men,  earnest 

Significant  and  thoughtful,  and  as  capable  of  judging  the 
matter  as  any  men  in  the  West,  and  with  far 
richer  and  more  reliable  material  and  vastly 
better  opportunities  for  judgment,  have  found 
the  non-Christian  religions,  which  they  knew  at 
first  hand,  to  be  inadequate,  and  Christianity  to 
be  entirely  adequate;  that  they  know^f  no  cor- 
rections or  supplements  which  Christianity  needs 
and  can  obtain  from  the  non-Christian  religions; 
that  Christianity  is  in  their  view  the  absolute 
world  religion,  and  that  there  are  no  distinctions 
between  the  Oriental  and  Western  consciousness, 
no  fixed  lines  of  cleavage  between  East  and  West, 
no  barriers  of  race  or  temper  or  tradition  which 
justify  separate  provincial  or  ethnic  religions,  or 
forbid  the  hope  and  the  duty  of  effecting  through 
Christ  and  in  Christ  the  unification  of   mankind. 


Concl 


onclusion. 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  293 

Such  evidence,  and  the  convincing  conclusions 
which  flow  from  it,  reveal  afresh  the  validity  and 
the  urgency  of  the  missionary  motive.  These 
correspondents  realized  this  in  their  answers  to 
the  further  question,  "What  are  the  missionary 
motives  w^hich  should  be  pressed  upon  the  Chris- 
tian church?  " 

Kozaki,  Japan: — 

The  missionary  motives  to  be  pressed  vipon  the 
Christian  churches  are  these:  (1)  The  inadequacy  of 
the  non-Christian  religions  to  supply  the  religious  and 
ethical  needs  of  man.  (2)  The  principle  of  Christian 
love. 

Uemura,  Japan: — 

There  are  many  familiar  missionary  motives  that 
may  properly  be  pressed  upon  the  Christian  churches, 
but  there  is  one  whose  seriousness  is  too  often  lost  sight 
of.  Whatever  possibilities  the  future  may  disclose,  life 
out  of  Christ  is  without  hope. 

Ebina,  Japan: — 

Christianity  is  a  religion  for  man;  and  the  same 
motives  that  influence  a  Christian  to  proclaim  Christ  in 
America  should  influence  him  to  proclaim  Christ  to  the 
world — to  give  to  the  world  a  share  in  the  higher 
experience  that  flows  from  the  life  in  Christ.  Asia  is 
in  the  twilight,  and  needs  the  Light  of  Life.  This  is  the 
spirit  of  Christ  Himself.  He  says,  I  am  the  Light  of 
the  World  and  I  give  my  life  for  you. 

BIBLE  READING 

First  Chapter  of  Colossians. 


294      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

QUESTIONS 

Why  are  the  judgments  of  Christian  converts  in  Asia 
as  to  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  the  non-Christian 
religions  of  special  value? 

What  is  their  view  of  the  right  of  the  non-Christian 
religions  to  be  called  ''religions?" 

Do  they  regard  Christianity  as  essentially  different 
from  other  religions?     If  so,  on  what  grounds? 

Upon  what  does  the  consensus  of  opinion  think  the 
emphasis  should  be  laid, — the  resemblances  or  the 
differences? 

Wherein  are  the  non-Christian  religions  fundamen- 
tally unlike  Christianity? 

What  should  be  our  attitude  in  Asia  toward  the  non- 
Christian  religions? 

Has  Christianity  penetrated  the  Asiatic  mind,  or  is  it 
futile  to  attempt  to  convert   the  non-Christian  peoples? 

Are  the  East  and  West  incapable  of  mutual  under- 
standing? 

Is  there  an  Oriental  consciousness  radically  unlike 
the  Occidental  consciousness?  Is  humanity  two  or  one? 
Read  Kipling's  ''Ballad  of  the  East  and  West." 

Is  Christianity  final,  or  is  it  to  be  modified  and 
supplemented  by  the  non-Christian  religions? 

What  conclusions  are  to  be  drawn  from  the  testimony 
of  these  competent  witnesses? 

SELECTED  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Townsend,  "Asia  and  Europe,"  Putnam,  1910. 

Hall,    "Christ   and    the    Eastern    Soul,"    University    of 

Chicago  Press,  1909. 
Hall,  "Christ  and  the  Human  Race,"  Houghton  Mifflin 

Company,  1906. 
Knox,  "The  Spirit  of  the  Orient,"  Crowell,  1906. 
Murray,  1898-99, 


ASIA'S  OWN  OPINION  295 

Jessup,    "Kamil    Abdul    Messiah,"  Westminster   Press, 

1899. 
Uchimura,    "Diarj    of    a   Japanese    Convert,"    Revell, 

1895. 
Hardy,  "Life  and   Letters  of  Joseph   Hardy  Neesima," 

Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1891. 
Taylor,  "Pastor  Hsi,"  China  Inland  Mission,  1907. 
Yung  Wing,  "My   Life  in  China  and   America,"  Holt, 

1909. 
Brown,  "Father  Goreh, "  Longmans,  1900. 
Dyer,  "Pandita  Ramabai,"  Revell,  1900. 
Mozoomdar,  "The   Oriental    Christ,"    George  H.  Ellis, 

1883. 


CHAPTER  VI 

CHRIST,   THE  ONLY  LIGHT  OF 
THE  WORLD 


CHAPTER  VI 

CHRIST,    THE    ONLY    LIGHT    OF    THE    WORLD 

Such  a  comparison  of   Christianity   with   other  The  Necessity 

religions  as  we  have  been  making  is  unavoidable,  and  Desira- 

and    it  is  also   highly  desirable.      It   is   unavoida-  odity  of 
ble  because  the  very  aim  of  the  missionary  enter-      °"!^^"  . 

•^  -^   .     .  Christianity 

prise  is  to  lead  the  followers  of  other  religions  ^{tK  Other 
to  compare  them  with  Christianity.  Unless  Religions, 
they  make  this  comparison,  they  will  not  leave 
what  is  false  in  their  old  faiths  and  carry  what 
is  true  in  them  forward  into  the  fuller  truth  of 
Christianity,  which  is  freedom  from  all  falsehood 
and  fulfillment  of  all  truth.  The  whole  work  of 
missions  is  just  this.  It  can  only  be  done 
through  such  comparative  presentation  of  the 
gospel  as  will  fit  it  into  the  religious  mind  which 
it  finds  and  will  build  all  the  materials  it  dis- 
covers which  are  capable  of  redemption  into  the 
new  national  faith  it  is  to  produce.  The  ideal 
of  missions  is  to  settle  Christianity  as  an  indig- 
enous and  living  power  in  each  race,  absorbing 
and  glorifying  all  that  is  of  worth  in  the  past  of 
the  race,  purging  out  all  dre-ss  and  error,  and 
relating  its  failures  and  achievements  rightly  to 
the  destiny  for  which  only  Christianity  can  pre- 
pare it.      Every  element  of  the  missionary  under- 


300      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

taking  calls  for  careful  study  of  the  religions 
which  Christianity  is  to  displace. 
"^  And  the  support  of  missions  at  home  also  calls 
for  such  comparative  study.  We  are  told  that  the 
non-Christian  religions  are  good  enough  for  the 
non-Christian  nations, — better  for  them,  indeed, 
than  Christianity  would  be;  that  in  essential 
character  all  religions  are  one,  and  that  human 
development,  or  the  divine  education  of  the  races 
of  men,  if  we  prefer  to  call  it  so,  has  wrought 
out  for  the  various  peoples  their  own  best  and 
most  adequate  religious  life.  If  we  are  to  main- 
tain a  missionary  purpose  in  an  atmosphere  where 
such  views  are  pressed  upon  us,  and  are  to  be 
prejDared  to  win  those  who  hold  such  views  to 
abandon  them  and  to  take  a  share  in  the  mission- 
ary undertaking,  it  can  only  be  by  such  a 
thorough  study  of  comparative  religion  as  will 
candidly  face  all  such  propositions. 

If  Christianity  had  anything  to  fear  from  such 
a  comparison,  this  would  be  an  additional  reason 
for  making  it.  For  the  truth  has  nothing  to  fear 
from  error  or  from  any  conflict  with  error.  If 
Christianity  could  not  face  such  tests  it  could  only 
be  because  false  elements  had  crept  into  Chris- 
tianity which  could  not  be  too  soon  removed. 
But  as  a  matter  of  fact,  Christianity  has  nothing 
to  fear  and  a  great  deal  to  gain.  The  gain  will 
not  be  in  the  addition  of  new  treasures  from  the 
non-Christian  religions,  but  in  the  development 
of   its   own   latent   treasures   which    include    and 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLTLIGHI      301 

exceed  all  other  good.  And  its  fear  will  not  be 
of  the  discovery  of  the  treasures  of  other  reli- 
gions. "I  make  no  secret,"  says  Max  Muller,  in 
''The  Science  of  Religion,"  "that  true  Christian- 
ity seems  to  me  to  become  more  and  more  exalted 
the  more  we  appreciate  the  treasures  of  truth 
hidden  in  the  despised  religions  of  the  world. 
But  no  one  can  honestly  arrive  at  that  conviction 
unless  he  uses  honestly  the  same  measure  for  all 
religions.  It  would  be  fatal  for  any  religion  to 
claim  an  exceptional  treatment,  most  of  all  for 
Christianity.  Christianity  enjoyed  no  privileges 
and  claimed  no  immunities  when  it  boldly  con- 
fronted and  confounded  the  most  ancient  and  the 
most  powerful  religions  of  the  world.  Even  at 
present  it  craves  no  mercy,  and  it  receives  no 
mercy  from  those  whom  our  missionaries  have  to 
meet  face  to  face  in  every  part  of  the  world;  and 
unless  our  religion  has  ceased  to  be  what  it  was, 
its  defenders  should  not  shrink  from  this  new 
trial  of  strength,  but  should  encourage  rather  than 
depreciate  the  study  of  comparative  theology. 

''And  let  me  remark  this,  in  the  very  beginning, 
that  no  other  religion,  with  the  exception,  per- 
haps, of  early  Buddhism,  would  have  favored  the 
idea  of  an  impartial  comparison  of  the  principal 
religions  of  the  world — would  have  tolerated  our 
science.  Nearly  every  religion  seems  to  adopt 
the  language  of  the  Pharisee  rather  than  of  the 
publican.  It  is  Christianity  alone  which,  as  the 
religion  of  humanity,  as  the  religion  of  no  caste, 


302       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

of  no  chosen  people,  has  taught  us  to  respect  the 
history  of  humanity  as  a  whole,  to  discover  the 
traces  of  a  divine  wisdom  and  love  in  the  govern- 
ment of  all  the  races  of  mankind,  and  to  recog- 
nize, if  possible,  even  in  the  lowest  and  crudest 
forms  of  religious  belief,  not  the  work  of  demon- 
iacal agencies,  but  something  that  indicates  a 
divine  guidance,  something  that  makes  us  per- 
ceive, with  St.  Peter,  *that  God  is  no  respecter 
of  persons,  but  that  in  every  nation  he  that 
feareth  Him  and  worketh  righteousness  is 
accepted  with  Him.'  " 

The  effect  of  all  such  comparisons,  justly  made, 
will  only  be  to  make  us  surer  of  our  own  faith. 
For  while  on  grounds  of  our  personal  experience 
we  are  satisfied  with  Christianity  as  the  absolute 
religion  for  us,  we  shall  be  far  surer  that  it  is 
meant  to  be  the  universal  religion,  and  we  shall 
value  it  the  more  highly  as  the  noblest  possible 
spiritual  possession,  and  we  shall  have  more 
adequate  grounds  for  our  personal  faith  in  it, 
when  we  have  fairly  measured  it  against  all  other 
religions.  For  "let  us  assume  that  our  form  of 
religion  is  the  highest,  as  indeed  every  one 
thinks  who  sincerely  believes  in  his  religion, 
whether  he  be  Mohammedan  or  Christian,  Bud- 
dhist or  Brahman,  Zarathustrian  or  Confucian. 
You  and  I  are  convinced  that  the  purest  and 
most  genuinely  human  form  of  religion  has  been 
brought  to  light  by  the  gosi^el.  But  may  it  not 
be  a  blind   faith?     In  the   religion  in  which  we 


CHRIST,  THE  OJVLT LIGHT     803 

have  been  brought  up,  the  religion  of  our  fathers, 
the  religion  of  our  youth,  we  have  found  con- 
solation and  strength,  a  light  upon  our  path,  a 
stimulus  to  all  that  is  good  and  great;  v^^e  are 
grateful  for  it,  and  -we  have  learned  to  love  it; 
and  so  lonsf  as  it  is  the  source  of  our  hisrher  life 
and  our  purest  happiness  we  shall  never  forsake  it. 
'^But  others  too  have  found  the  same  in  their 
religion.  And  the  only  inference  we  can  draw 
from  this  is  that  our  religion  is  the  best  for  us, 
and  theirs  for  them,  from  different  points  of 
view.  Science  may  respect  these  beliefs,  and 
even  recognize  their  relative  rights,  but  cannot 
allow  them  the  validity  of  proofs.  She  desires 
to  know  and  account  for  every  conviction.  And 
how  can  I  know  whether  a  religion  is  the  highest 
without  comparing  it  with  others?"  (Tiele, 
"Elements  of  the  Science  of  Religion,"  First 
Series,  p.  53.)  It  is  only  when  we  have  made 
this  comparison  that  we  can  appreciate  the  unique 
glory  of  Christianity.  Just  as  the  non-Christian 
religions  only  appear  in  their  deep  inadequacy 
when  contrasted  with  Christianity,  so  ''Chris- 
tianity cannot  fully  be  understood  unless  viewed 
in  relation  to  these  religions.  We  must  know 
what  questions  the  human  soul  has  been  putting 
to  itself  in  various  ages,  lands,  and  circumstances, 
and  what  are  the  answers  it  has  been  giving  to 
them,  before  we  can  appreciate  aright  the  com- 
prehensiveness and  aptness  of  the  response  con- 
tained in  the  gospel.      Not  one  of  the  features  or 


804      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


Cliristlanity 
Never  Sur- 
renders Its 
Supreme 
Claims. 


doctrines  of  Christianity  will  fail  to  appear  in  a 
brighter  light  and  with  a  diviner  beauty  after 
they  have  been  compared  and  contrasted  with  the 
correlative  features  and  doctrines  of  other  reli- 
gions." (Professor  Flint,  quoted  in  "Homiletic 
Review,"  December,  1893.  Article  by  D.  S. 
Schaff  on  ''The  Parliament  of  Religions  and  the 
Christian  Faith,"  p.  555.) 

It  scarcely  needs  to  be  said,  and  yet  common 
misunderstandings  necessitate  its  saying,  that  in 
measuring  itself  on  a  level  with  all  other  reli- 
gions, Christianity  does  not  abandon  its  claim  to 
be  unique  and  absolute.  ''When  Christianity 
consented  to  have  representatives  sitting  in  the 
Parliament  on  terms  of  equality  with  every  other 
religion,"  says  a  recent  writer  regarding  the 
Parliament  of  Religions  in  1893,  "then  con- 
sciously or  unconsciously  it  gave  up  the  claim  of 
being  the  only  true  and  divine  religion  in  the 
world."  (A.  W.  Martin  in  "The  Unity  of 
Religions,"  p.  331.)  Whatever  opinion  we  may 
hold  about  the  Parliament  of  Religions,  it  is 
none  the  less  true  that  in  every  mission  field 
to-day  Christianity  is  meeting  the  non-Christian 
religions  on  this  basis  of  equality.  In  many 
cases,  indeed,  it  is  not  admitted  by  them  on  terms 
of  equality.  But  never  for  one  moment  does 
Christianity  waive  its  claim  to  be  "the  only  true 
and  divine  religion  in  the  world."  It  recognizes 
truth  wherever  it  finds  it,  whether  in  or  out  of 
religions.      It  believes  that  all  the  world  is  God's 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT     305 

and  that  no  nation  and  no  soul  has  been  out  of 
His  love.  But  it  knows  that  the  Name  which  it 
bears  is  the  only  Name  given  under  heaven  among 
men  by  which  they  are  to  be  saved,  and  that  vnito 
Him  shall  the  gathering  of  the  nations  be.  It 
makes  its  comparisons  with  other  religions  in 
absolute  candor  and  openness.  But  each  new 
comparison  only  confirms  the  result  of  all  which 
have  gone  before,  and  leaves  Christianity  with  a 
clearer  discernment  of  its  own  unique  and  abso- 
lute superiority.  It  vindicates  afresh  its  effort  to 
displace  all  other  religions,  on  the  ground  that 
apart  altogether  from  the  evil  and  error  which 
are  found  imbedded  in  each  of  them,  ''when  that 
which  is  perfect  is  come,  then  that  which  is  in 
part  shall  be  done  away." 

And  if  comparison  is  to  be  made  between  Nevertheless 
Christianity  and  the  non-Christian  religions,  such  It  Undergoes 
as  we  have  tried  to  make,  and   such   as   mission-   an  Absolutely 

,  .  ,  -,  ...  Fair  and  Just 

aries  are  making  every  day,  and  are  ever  inciting 
the  followers  of  the  non-Christian  religions  to 
make,  this  comparison  must  be  absolutely  just 
and  fair.  As  far  as  Christians  are  concerned, 
this  goes  without  saying.  If  it  is  not  just  and 
fair  it  is  not  Christian,  and  no  truly  Christian 
result  can  flow  from  it.  We  must  not  judge  any 
religion  by  standards  and  methods  whose  appli- 
cation to  our  own  religion  we  would  resent.  Let 
us  note  the  feeling  which  we  have  on  meeting 
with  any  untrue  and  unfair  condemnation  of 
Christianity,    and    learn    from   our   resentment  a 


-i 


306       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

just  attitude  toward  others.  When  Swami  Abhe- 
dananda  returned  to  Madras  from  his  Hindu 
mission  to  America,  a  large  public  meeting  wel- 
comed him  back,  and  in  speaking  to  the  gather- 
ing the  Swami  compared  the  Hindu  religion  with 
the  other  religions  of  the  world  and  said,  whereas 
Hinduism  taught  that  to  manifest  divinity  in  all 
actions  of  daily  life  was  true  religion:  Chris- 
tianity and  other  religions  insisted  on  people 
believing  certain  set  dogmas  which  failed  to  lay 
stress  on  conduct.  In  European  and  American 
countries  the  people  donned  religious  garb  only 
on  a  particular  day  of  the  week,  and  went  to  a 
place  of  worship  for  various  purposes.  For 
instance,  he  said,  doctors  went  to  church  on 
Sundays  to  secure  patients,  lawyers  to  get  clients, 
maids  to  find  husbands,  bachelors  to  find  wives, 
and  people  in  general  to  keep  up  appearances. 
As  we  reject  such  a  representation  as  unfair  and 
untrue,  let  us  first  ask  whether  we  have  ever 
passed  similar  confused  and  unjust  judgments  on 
other  religions,  and  secondly  let  us  ask  whether 
there  was  no  justification  in  our  imperfect  types 
of  Christianity  in  the  West  for  Abhedananda's 
misrepresentation.  For  consider  how  much  there 
has  been  in  the  history  of  Christianity  in  the  dark 
ages,  and  is  now  in  South  American  Christianity, 
that  the  apologists  for  the  non-Christian  reli- 
gions can  retort  upon  us.  If,  as  Max  Muller 
says,  we  ask  ''Was  the  worship  of  Moloch  a  true 
religion   when   they  burnt    their  sons   and    their 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL7^ LIGHT     307 

daughters  in  the  fire  to  their  gods?  Was  the 
worship  of  Mylitta,  or  is  the  worship  of  Kali  a 
true  religion,  when  within  the  sanctuary  of  their 
temple  they  committed  abominations  that  must 
be  nameless?  Was  the  teaching  of  Buddha  a  true 
religion,  when  men  were  asked  to  believe  that  the  l/ 
highest  reward  of  virtue  and  mediation  consisted 
in  a  complete  annihilation  of  the  soul?"  Then 
the  non-Christian  peoples  may  turn  and  answer, 
''Can  that  be  a  true  religion  which  consigned 
men  of  holy  innocence  to  the  flames,  because  they 
held  that  the  Son  was  like  unto  the  Father,  but 
not  the  same  as  the  Father,  or  because  they  would 
not  worship  the  Virgin  and  the  saints?  Can 
that  be  a  true  religion  which  screened  the  same 
nameless  crimes  behind  the  sacred  walls  of  mon- 
asteries?" (Muller,  ''The  Science  of  Religion," 
p.  115.) 

If  we  answer  "No,  it  was  not  true,  true  Chris- 
tianity is  so-and-so,"  we  must  be  prepared  to 
have  them  say,  "Well,  you  must  allow  us  also  to 
make  distinctions,  and  if  you  wish  Christianity 
to  be  judged  by  its  best,  so  you  must  judge  our 
religions."  If  we  meet  non-Christian  objections 
to  Christianity  by  answers  which  satisfy  us,  we 
must  be  fair  in  allowing  similar  answers,  as  far 
as  they  can  be  made,  in  defence  of  what  others 
hold  dear.  If  we  explain  the  law^s,  morals,  and 
social  ideals  of  the  Hebrew^s,  still  commemo- 
rated in  our  Scriptures,  on  principles  of  develop- 
ment, we  must  fairly  allow  the  same  principle  to 


S08      THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

others;  and  if  with  many  of  them  the  allowance 
is  useless  because  the  old  is  still  ^^reserved  side 
by  side  with  the  new,  the  undeveloped  beside  the 
developed,  we  must  be  generous  as  well  as  just, 
remembering  South  America,  and  how  much 
there  is  still  with  us  in  Protestant  Christianity 
that  is  not  of  Christ.  And  if  we  hold  the  apos- 
tolic development  of  the  gospel  message  to  be 
legitimate,  we  must  be  fair  in  judging  the 
expansive  interpretations  which  the  non-Christian 
faiths  give  of  their  foundations.  We  must  make 
all  the  allowances  in  our  attitude  to  other  reli- 
gions which  we  demand  of  them  in  their  attitude 
to  ours. 
The  Com-  And  we  must  recognize  the  real   difficulties  in 

parison  of         the    way    of     fair     comparisons.       Abhedananda 
Religions  might  have  been   quite  sincere  in  his  judgment. 

And  Uchimura  writes  in  his  "Diary": — 

Heathenism,  like  much  of  what  passes  for  Chris- 
tianity in  Christendom,  teaches  morality,  and  inculcates 
upon  us  the  keeping  of  the  same.  It  shows  us  the 
way,  and  commands  us  to  walk  therein.  No  more  and 
no  less.  x\s  for  Juggernaut,  infant-sacrifice,  and  so 
forth,  let  us  eliminate  them  from  our  account  of 
heathenism,  for  they  are  not  it, — as  mammon-worship, 
and  infant-killing  by  other  methods  than  that  of  throw- 
ing them  to  gavials,  and  other  horrors  and  superstitions 
of  Christendom  are  not  Christianity.  Therein  let  us  be 
fair  and  forgiving  in  judging  others.  We  will  meet  our 
enemy  in  his  best  and  strongest.   .   .   . 

It  is  said  that  the  state  of  New  York,  with  a  popula- 
tion of  5,000,000,  produces  more  murderers  than  Japan 
with  40,000,000  souls.     General    Grant's    observation  in 


Difficult, 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT LIGHT     309 

the  latter  country  was  that  the  number  and  state  of  its 
poor  were  nothing  compared  with  what  he  saw  in  his 
own  United  States.  London  is  proverbial  for  the  mag- 
nitude of  its  pauperism,  and  Christendom  generally  for 
its  gambling  and  drinking  habits.  Some  of  the  alco- 
holic liquors  that  can  satisfy  the  appetite  of  these 
people  are  strong  enough  to  upset  the  heads  of  our 
drunkards,  if  taken  in  any  considerable  quantity. 
Scenes  in  those  back  streets  of  some  of  the  largest  cities 
of  Christendom,  which  no  decent  men  dare  even  to  look 
into,  can  be  described  with  no  milder  words  than  the 
vilest  in  any  language.  Shameless  gamblings,  open-day 
piracies,  cool-blooded  sacrifice  of  fellowmen  for  one's 
own  aggrandizement,  are  being  conducted  there  on 
gigantic,  business-like  scales.   .   .   . 

''Christendom  is  a  beastly  land."  So  report  some  of 
my  countrymen  who  have  traveled  abroad,  and  saw  only 
its  dark  half.  True,  they  are  unfair;  but  as  far  as  the 
said  beastliness  goes,  the  impressions  they  have  received 
are  correct.  Heathendom  cannot  compete  with  Chris- 
tendom in  its  beastliness  as  well.  (Uchimura,  "Diary 
of  a  Japanese  Convert,"  pp.  177,  181,  183.) 

We  point  out  in  reply  that  Christianity  does 
not  shelter  or  excuse  these  evils,  and  that  non- 
Christian  religions  do.  But  we  are  told  that 
Christianity,  in  the  dark  ages,  did  shelter  such 
things,  and  does  still  in  South  America.  We 
have  our  answer  to  this,  too,  but  the  need  of 
these  answers  only  shows  how  hard  the  just  com- 
parison really  is. 

And  we  need  to  remember,  also,  that   different   Different 
peoples   have   different    ideals    and    desires;    and   Standards  of 
that  what  seems  to   us  a  great  virtue   in   Chris-   Ju«ignaent. 
tianity  may  not   at   once   appear  so  to  an  Asiatic, 


310       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

Mr.  Townsend  in  "Asia  and  Europe"  illustrates 
this  vividly,  if  somewhat  hyperbolically : — 

The  truth  is  that  the  Asiatics,  like  the  Jews,  dislike 
Christianity,  see  in  it  an  ideal  they  do  not  love,  a 
promise  they  do  not  desire,  and  a  pulverizing  force 
which  must  shatter  their  civilizations.  Eternal  con- 
sciousness! That  to  the  majority  of  Asiatics  is  not  a 
promise  but  a  threat.  The  wish  to  be  rid  of  conscious- 
ness, either  by  annihilation  or  by  absorption  in  the 
Divine,  is  the  strongest  impulse  they  can  feel.  Though 
Asiatic  in  origin,  Christianity  is  the  least  Asiatic  of  the 
creeds.  Its  acceptance  would  revolutionize  the  position 
of  woman,  which  is  the  same  throughout  Asia,  would 
profoundly  modify  all  social  life,  and  would  place  by 
the  side  of  the  spiritual  dogma  ''thou  shalt  love  the  Lord 
thy  God,"  which  every  Asiatic  accepts  in  theory,  the 
far-reaching  ethical  dogma,  "and  thy  neighbor  as  thy- 
self," which  he  regards  as  an  intolerable  burden. 
(''Asia  and  Europe,"  p.  35.) 

A  Japanese  paper  presents  another  illustration 
in  giving  the  impressions  of  America  brought 
back  to  Japan  by  the  deputation  of  Japanese 
business  men  who  visited  America  in  1909. 
Among  the  things  they  could  not  admire  they 
named  "pretension  to  respect  paid  to  ladies," 
"extreme  respect  for  women,"  "too  much 
respect  for  women, "  "presumptuous  attitude  of 
women  over  men." 

And  back  of  all  these  differences  are  funda- 
mental divergent  conceptions  of  God ;  the 
Asiatic,  except  the  Mohammedan,  shrinking  from 
the  divine  personality,  while  the  Christian  view 
finds  its  very  life  in  the  sense  of  God  as  personal 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT LIGHT      311 

Father.  Amid  conceptions  so  widely  divergent, 
fair  comparisons  are  not  easy. 

But  the  just  comparison   is  possible  when  on  The 

the   one   hand   there   is   a   mind   for   all    common  Acknowledg- 

truth,  and  on  the  other  a  fearless  and   honest  dis-  ™^"*  °^ 

cernment   of    true    difference.      In    dealing    with  *^°^^*' °* 

,  , .     .  .  ,  ,  .  .         Contact. 

other  religions  in  our  own  thought  or  in  mis- 
sionary effort,  Christians  gladly  recognize  all 
that  is  good  in  them  and  build  upon  it.  It  is 
surely  so  in  all  missionary  effort.  ''The  surest 
way  to  bring  a  man  to  acknowledge  his  errors," 
says  Bishop  Bloomfield,  "is  to  give  him  full 
credit  for  whatever  he  had  learned  of  the  truth." 
''What  should  we  think,"  says  a  keen  observer 
of  the  work  of  missions — "what  should  we  think 
of  an  engineer  who,  in  attempting  to  rear  a 
lighthouse  on  a  sandbar,  should  fail  to  acknowl- 
edge as  a  godsend  any  chance  outcropping  of 
solid  rock  to  which  he  might  fasten  his  stays?" 
(Ellinwood,  "Oriental  Religions  and  Chris- 
tianity," p.  20  f.)  If  there  were  no  truth  to 
build  upon,  the  missionary  task  would  be  hope- 
less. The  absence  of  all  truth  would  be  evidence 
of  the  incapacity  of  the  soul  of  such  people  for 
truth.  It  is  not  to  irreligion  and  atheism  that 
Christianity  can  best  be  addressed.  In  every  land 
believers  are  won  not  so  much  from  godlessness 
or  religious  indifference,  as  from  superstition  or 
from  partial  truth  or  from  firm  but  inadequate 
conviction.  "Who  can  learn  a  foreign  language, 
unless   he  has  a  language  of  his  own?     We  may 


312      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

acquire  new  languages  from  without;  language 
and  what  it  implies  must  come  from  within. 
The  same  with  religion.  Ask  a  missionary 
whether  he  can  efficiently  preach  the  mysteries 
of  Christianity  to  people  who  have  no  idea  of 
what  religion  is.  All  he  can  do  is  to  discover 
the  few  germs  of  religion  which  exist  even  among 
the  lowest  savages,  though  hidden,  it  may  be, 
beneath  deep  layers  of  rubbish;  to  make  them 
grow  again  by  tearing  up  the  weeds  that  have 
choked  them,  and  then  to  wait  patiently  till  the 
soil  in  which  alone  the  natural  seeds  of  religion 
can  grow  may  become  fit  again  to  receive  and  to 
nurture  the  seeds  of  a  higher  religion."  (Muller, 
^'The  Hibbert  Lectures,"  1878,  p.  258.) 

Christianity  rejoices,  therefore,  in  all  that  it 
finds  of  earnest  religious  feeling  or  of  worthy 
religious  conviction,  or  of  moral  principle.  It  is 
glad  to  recognize  the  high  ethical  doctrine  of 
Islam  regarding  drunkenness,  of  Buddhism 
regarding  gentleness  to  all  living  things,  of  Con- 
fucianism regarding  filial  piety,  and  the  fervent 
spiritual  longings  of  Hinduism.  It  is  prepared 
to  place  the  highest  construction  upon  other 
faiths,  to  contend  that  Mohammed's  rejection  of 
Christianity  must  be  interpreted  as  the  rejection 
of  the  debased  Christianity  he  knew,  and  that 
M  Buddha's  atheism  was  the  denial  of  the  impossible 
doctrine  of  God  which  alone  was  offered  to  him 
(Muller,  "Hibbert  Lectures,"  1878,  p.  304), 
and  that  back  of  much   crude   African  fetichism 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT LIGHT      SIS 

and  Chinese  animism  there  is  a  recognition  of 
one  supreme  God,  the  Creator  of  the  world,  after 
whom  the  soul  is  groping.  Our  Lord  has  taught 
us  that  the  way  to  reach  the  best  in  men  and  to 
win  men  to  their  best,  to  the  ideal  of  God  for 
them,  is  to  see  in  them  the  possibilities  which 
are  hidden  even  to  themselves,  and  to  claim  these 
possibilities  for  them  as  their  own.  "Thou  art 
Simon,"  he  said  to  the  vacillating  and  unreliable 
one,  "Thou  shalt  be  Rock."  He  saw  in  Simon 
the  nobility  which  His  influence  could  produce, 
and  by  confidence  and  love  He  made  Simon  that. 
All  the  truth  or  the  unwitting  error,  or  the  pos- 
sibility of  nobility  that  Christianity  can  discover 
in  the  religious  longings  of  other  peoples,  or  the 
answers  which  they  have  found  to  such  longings, 
Christianity  will  seek  out  and  use,  knowing  that 
they  are  humanity's  testimony  to  the  need  of  the 
world  for  Him  who  is  the  Light  of  the  World 
and  the  Desire  of  the  Nations. 

Comparison,     however,   calls    for  the    discern-   The  Discern- 
ment  of  difference   as   well    as    of    resemblance,    ment  of  dif- 
"If,"  says  Jevons,  "the  student  of  the  science  of  Terences, 
religion  directs  his  attention  primarily  to  the  dis- 
covery of  resemblances  between   religions  which 
at  first  sight    bear  not  more  resemblance    to    one 
another  than  Greek  did  to  the  Celtic  tongues,  .  .  . 
there  is  still  another  aspect  of  the  truth,  and  it  is 
that  between   things  which    resemble  one  another 
there  are  also   differences.      And   the   jury  of  the 
world  will   ultimately  demand  to   know  the  truth 


314      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

and  the  whole  truth.  .  .  .  For  the  purposes  of 
fair  comparison  not  only  must  the  resemblances, 
which  the  comparative  method  of  science  dwells 
on,  be  taken  into  account,  but  the  differences 
also  must  be  weighed.  .  .  .  For  the  practical 
purposes  of  the  missionary  it  is  important  to  begin 
with  the  resemblances;  and  on  grounds  of  logic 
and  of  theory,  the  resemblances  must  be  first 
established,  if  the  importance, — nay,  the  decisive 
value, — of  the  differences  is  to  go  home  to  the 
hearts  and  minds  of  the  missionary's  hearers. 
The  resemblances  are  there  and  are  to  be  studied 
ultimately  in  order  to  bring  out  the  differences 
and  make  them  stand  forth  so  plainly  as  to  make 
choice  between  the  higher  form  of  religion  and 
the  lower  easy,  simply  because  the  difference  is 
so  manifest."  (Jevons,  "Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Comparative  Religion,"  pp.  21,  22.) 
The  differences  are  as  radical  and  far  reaching 
as  the  agreements.  An  able  missionary  to  Mo- 
hammedans writes  in  a  letter: — 

The  effort  of  Moslems,  if  they  are  friendly,  is  usually 
to  show  that  the  two  faiths  are  practically  identical,  and 
that  consequently  there  is  no  superiority  on  the  side  of 
Christianity.  It  is  an  advantage,  of  course,  to  find  com- 
mon ground,  and  the  more  common  ground  one  can 
honestly  discover  the  better,  provided  that  one  goes 
beyond  the  common  ground  to  that  which  is  not  com- 
mon. In  this  it  has  seemed  to  me  better  to  allow  not 
merely  what  the  individual  presents,  but  all  that  can 
with  any  sort  of  propriety  be  claimed  by  Islam  ;  that  is, 
in  other  words,  framing  one's  argument  so  as  to  meet 
the  strongest  case   that  can   be   set  up   by  the  Moslem, 


CHRIST,  THE  OA'LT LIGHT     315 

whether  that  case  is  actually  presented  or  not.  How- 
ever, allowing  all  that  can  with  any  propriety  be  allowed 
in  the  way  of  common  ground,  there  is  always  the 
opportunity  to  go  on  and  show  how  the  two  faiths 
differ.  I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  a  single  doctrine 
in  which  the  teachings  of  the  two  religions  are  really 
identical.  In  admitting  identity,  the  great  danger  is 
that  the  truth  of  Christianity  should  be  minimized.  For 
example,  forgiveness  by  free  grace  is  fundamental  to 
both  religions;  but  in  Islam  the  basis  is  God's  absolute 
will,  and  in  Christianity  it  is  His  justice  and  righteous- 
ness manifested  in  the  atonement.  To  stop  at  the 
common  ground  will  give  the  impression  that  there  is 
no  difference,  and  that  in  Christianity  forgiveness  is  an 
act  of  God's  absolute  will.  One  needs  also  to  discrimi- 
nate in  the  use  of  language  and  not  to  use  terms  which 
imply  what  he  does  not  wish  to  imply.  The  uselessness, 
and  sometimes  worse  than  uselessness,  of  casual  con- 
versation on  religious  and  moral  topics  is  in  the  fact 
that  almost  inevitably  platitudes  are  indulged  in  which 
give  the  impression  of  an  agreement,  which  is  in  reality 
specious  and  deceptive. 

And  if  a  knowledge  of  the  difference  between 
Christianity  and  the  non-Christian  religions,  as 
well  as  of  the  resemblances,  is  necessary  for  the 
missionary,  it  is  necessary  for  Christians  at  home. 
The  intensity  of  their  desire  to  give  Christianity 
to  all  the  world  will  depend  upon  the  strength  and 
intelligence  of  their  conviction  that  the  world 
needs  Christianity,  and  can  have  in  Christ  what  it 
can  never  have  through  Ram  or  Krishna,  or  Buddha 
or  Mohammed,  or  in  any  non-Christian  religion. 
If  there  are  no  points  of  difference  between 
Christianity   and  the   non-Christian  religions,  or 


316      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

if  the  points  of  difference  are  unimportant,  there 
is  no  need  of  foreign  missions.  It  is  the  radical 
significance  of  these  points  of  difference  that 
justifies  all  that  the  missionary  enterprise  has  cost 
and  is  still  to  cost.  It  is  what  the  non-Christian 
'  people  do  not  have  that  we  are  to  give  them. 
We  are  among  them  because  we  believe  that 
Christianity  is  unique  and  indispensable  and  that 
there  is  all  the  difference  between  it  and  other 
religions  that  there  is  between  Christ  and  other 
men.  We  are  to  make  this  difference  an  attrac- 
tion and  apjDcal,  and  not  a  repulsion  and  offense; 
but  we  are  not  to  obscure  it.  The  difference  is 
the  whole  issue. 
Different  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  missionary  unbelief 

Opinions  as  to   of  \]^q   ^j^y  meets  US  and  denies  the  existence  of 
t  e     e  ation     ^       such   fundamental   difference   or  of  any  such 

of  Christian-  ,  .        .  r     r^^      • 

.  Q  1         uniqueness   or  superiority   on  the  part   ot   Chris- 

Religiona.         tianity  as   entitles   it  to  claim  supremacy  over  all 

mankind. 
"EacKReli-  Some  take  the  view  that   in   different  ages  and 

gion  Best  for    j^^  different   stages  of  personal    and   national    de- 
**     ^"^  velopment,    men   have   different    religious   needs 

and  that  a  diversity  of  religions  must  be  allowed 
for  in  order  to  cover  these  varying  conditions  of 
human  society  and  of  the  human  mind.  ''Who, 
if  he  is  honest  toward  himself,  "  asks  Max  Muller, 
"could  say  that  the  religion  of  his  manhood  was 
the  same  as  that  of  his  childhood,  or  the  religion 
of  his  old  age  the  same  as  the  religion  of  his  man- 
hood?    The  question,   therefore,    is  not  whether 


Adherents. 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY LIGH7'    817 

there  exist  these  great  differences  of  religion  in 
the  different  stages  of  each  life,  and  in  the  dif- 
ferent ranks  of  society,  but  whether  we  shall 
frankly  recognize  the  fact,  as  the  ancient  Brah- 
mans  recognized  it,  and  try  to  determine  accord- 
ingly our  position,  not  only  toward  those  who 
use  the  same  words  in  religion  which  we  use, 
though  with  greatly  varying  meanings,  but  also 
toward  those  who  do  not  even  use  the  same 
words?"  (Max  Muller,  ''Hibbert  Lectures," 
1878,  p.  367.)  And  in  ''The  Science  of  Reli- 
gion" the  same  writer  says,  "I  feel  convinced 
that  the  more  we  know  of  them  (/.  e.,  the  ancient 
religions  of  mankind)  the  more  we  shall  see  that 
there  is  not  one  which  is  entirely  false;  nay,  that 
in  one  sense  every  religion  was  a  true  religion, 
being  the  only  religion  that  was  possible  at  the 
time,  which  was  compatible  with  the  language, 
the  thoughts,  and  the  sentiments  of  each  genera- 
tion, which  was  appropriate  to  the  age  of  the 
world."  (''The  Science  of  Religion,"  p.  115.) 
We  must,  therefore,  it  is  claimed,  make  allow- 
ances for  other  religions. and  their  points  of  view 
and  judge  them  relatively  and  not  absolutely.  "I 
maintain,"  says  Muller,  "that  each  phase  of  life 
must  be  judged  by  itself.  Savages  have  their 
own  vices,  but  they  also  have  their  own  virtues. 
If  the  negro  could  write  a  black  book  against 
the  white  man,  we  should  miss  in  it  few  of  the 
crimes  which  we  think  peculiar  to  the  savage. 
The  truth    is   that  the  morality  of   the  negro  and 


318      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

the  white  man  cannot  be  compared,  because  their 
views  of  life  are  totally  different."  ("Hibbert 
Lectures,"  1878,  p.  77.) 

So  judged,  Islam  or  Buddhism  may  be  the  best 
religion  for  a  people  at  a  certain  stage  in  its  de- 
velopment; nay,  may  be  the  only  possible  reli- 
gion. And  the  application  of  the  principle  to 
individuals  can  hardly  be  resisted,  so  that  as  one 
of  the  best  known  professors  in  the  Imperial 
University  in  Tokyo  put  it,  "as  there  are  differ- 
ent sorts  of  tea,  so  there  are  different  kinds  of 
religion  and  each  man  chooses  according  to  his 
taste."  Nor  are  men  to  be  reproached  for  not 
breaking  with  religions  divinely  suited  to  their 
own  age  and  people,  especially  when  statesmen 
from  Christian  nations  advise  them  against  it: 
Lord  Curzon,  for  example,  speaking  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan students  in  Aligarh  College,  and  say- 
ing, "Adhere  to  your  own  religion,  which  has  in 
it  the  ingredients  of  great  nobility  and  profound 
truth."  ("Makhzan  i  Masihi,"  June  15,  1901.) 
This  view  of  the  providential  basis  of  each  reli- 
gion, and  of  its  adequacy  for  its  own  age  and  race, 
need  not  theoretically  cut  the  missionary  nerve, 
for  ages  and  racial  conditions  change,  and  this  age 
and  the  world  situation  which  we  confront  may 
require  that  Christianity  be  made  the  one  religion 
of  all;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact,  those  who  hold  this 
view  think  that  tolerance  and  charity  are  the  great 
words,  and  that  they  leave  no  room  for  the  prose- 
lytism  of  foreign  missions.      This  is  not  the  view 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT  LIGHT    319 

of  those  who  are  trying  to  make  the  Christian 
religion  the  religion  of  all  mankind,  and  to  win 
the  followers  of  all  other  religions  to  become  fol- 
lowers of  Christ. 

The    matter    is    put    somewhat    differently   by   "AUReKg- 
others,  who  hold  that  fundamentally  all  religions   ion  Essential- 
are  alike.      The  essential   question    is  one  not   of  ^^  Oi^^,  how- 

!••  ^      ,      n        ^•     •  n-r^   •     •      ^        i  i^*       >>     ever  Different 

religions  but  of  religion.      "It  is  indeed  certain,       _  ,,  . 

.  f  ,       ,  ,         .    ,  .      T^      1  ,,  .  .       ,     .        Religions 


said  the  heads  of  the  six  Buddhist  sects  united  in 
the  ^^Great  Japan  Buddhists'  Union,"  in  a  letter 
addressed  in  1900  to  "Our  revered  ecclesiastical 
brethren"  throughout  the  world,  ''that  the  forms 
of  religion  in  the  world  are  manifold.  But  it  is 
equally  certain  that  in  spite  of  the  dissimilarity 
of  religions  in  their  tenets,  as  well  as  in  rites, — in 
short,  in  their  external  organization, — the  funda- 
mental principles  embodied  in  what  we  regard  as 
the  higher  classes  of  religion,  to  say  nothing  of 
those  which  still  remain  undeveloped,  are  in  all 
cases  essentially,  if  not  entirely,  analogous."  ''I 
care  little  for  external  forms,"  said  Professor 
Kume  in  his  account  of  Shintoism,  ''and  doubt 
whether  there  are  any  essential  differences  be- 
tween any  of  the  religions  of  the  world."  "In 
this  country,"  said  the  "New  York  Post,"  in  an 
account  of  the  visit  to  America  in  1905  of  the 
Hon.  P.  Ramanathan,  solicitor  general  of  Cey- 
lon, "interest  in  Mr.  Ramanathan  may  center 
upon  the  fact  that  he  has  struck  out  for  himself  a 
new  line  of  thought  and  effort  for  the  unification 
of  Eastern  and  Western  ideals — the  establishment 


May  Be. 


320   THE  LIGHT  OF  7 HE  WORLD 

of  the  fundamental  identity  of  the  religious  sys- 
tems of  the  East  and  the  West."  (The  ''New 
York  Evening  Post,"  July  22,  1905.)  There 
is  left  on  this  basis  no  warrant  for  the  effort  on 
the  part  of  one  religion  to  displace  or  supersede 
or  absorb  another.  Each  one  has  as  good  claim 
to  supremacy  as  the  rest.  The  recognition  of 
essential  unity  or  of  the  balance  of  things  equally 
good  is  what  is  demanded  of  us.  We  may  let  a 
Hindu  paper  answer  this  view  for  us  before  we 
take  it  up  in  more  detail.  Commenting  upon 
Dr.  Barrows'  position  in  his  Haskell  Lectures  in 
India,  the  "Indian  Social  Reformer,"  of  Madras, 
remarked : — 

It  has,  we  see,  been  made  a  point  against  Dr.  Barrows 
that  he  claims  a  position  for  Christianity  superior  to 
that  of  any  other  religion.  We  are,  of  course,  not  pre- 
pared to  concede  that  claim.  But  we  never  expected 
that  Dr.  Barrows  would  condescend  to  waive  that  claim 
for  his  own  faith,  and  if  he  had  done  so,  we,  for  one, 
should  not  have  very  much  cared  to  listen  to  what  he 
has  to  say. 

And  we  regard  as  the  outcome  of  sheer  intellectual 
indolence  and  pusillanimity,  the  opinion  which  is  fash- 
ioViable  now-a-days  that  one  conviction,  one  faith,  is  as 
good  as  another.  We  regard  this  easy-going  fashion  of 
mind  as  fraught  with  the  greatest  danger  to  the  future 
of  this  country.  For  it  means  isolation  ;  it  spells  death. 
The  vice,  wherever  and  in  whatever  form  it  prevails,  is 
the  child  of  pure  selfishness. 

The  religion  of  the  future  will  no  doubt  have  affinities 
with  each  of  the  existing  religions,  just  as  the  human 
race  has  affinities  with  the  anthropoid  apes.  We,  there- 
fore, welcome  Dr.  Barrows'  statement  of  the  claims  of 
his  faith.     If   they  are   exaggerated    or   imaginary,  they 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHl     321 

will  go  to  the  wall  of  the'r  own  accord.  If  they  are 
real,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  so  happen  that  some 
courageous  souls  that  have  been  seeking  the  light  and 
have  not  found  it,  may  be  impressed  with  them  and  may 
be  led  to  transform  themselves  into  the  receptacles  of  a 
greatness  such  as  an  exalted  religious  idea  alone  can 
bestow.  We  invite  our.  friends  to  give  their  unbiased 
hearing  to  Dr.  Barrows.  To  be  afraid  of  being  con- 
verted to  his  views  is  cowardice.  No  man  who  is  afraid 
of  having  to  relinquish  his  prepossessions  need  call 
himself  a  religious  man  or  a  lover  of  truth.  (Quoted 
in  Introduction  to  Barrows  Lectures,  1896-1897,  "Chris- 
tianity the  World  Religion,"  p.  xvi.  f . ) 

Still   another  way  of  putting  the  matter   is   in    "EackReli- 
the    words    of    a   Hindu    correspondent   of  "The   gion  a  Way 
Epiphany,"  in  Calcutta,  that  "Christianity  is  not  to  God." 
the  only  way  revealed  by   God,  but   Hinduism  is 
also  the  way   to   God."      In  a  remarkable  sermon 
on   Hinduism,  preached    in   the   Scotch    Kirk    in 
Allahabad,  February  20,  1876,  Dr.  Kellogg  stated 
this  view  and  answered  it: — 

It  is  a  very  commoft  opinion  in  our  day,  that  aH 
religions  are  of  God ;  that  all  contain  somewhat  of 
divine  truth,  with  a  greater  or  less  admixture  of  human 
error.  While  it  is  not  pretended  that  all  religions  are 
per  se  equally  good,  it  is  often  argued  that  they  may  be 
so  relatively  to  the  peoples  who  hold  them  ;  and  that  as 
one  may  reach  a  city  from  several  different  directions, 
by  as  many  different  roads,  so  may  those  who  in  everj' 
religion  sincerely  worship  God  as  they  apprehend  Him 
to  be,  attain  to  whatever  of  blessedness  a  future  life 
may  have  in  store.  Those  who  think  and  talk  after  this 
fashion  usually  assume  that  in  fundamental  matters 
there  is  not  so  much  difference  in  various  religions  as 
theologians   try  to   make   out,  and   that   the  differences 


322   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

which  do  exist  pertain  not  to  the  essence,  but  to  the 
form;  not  to  the  necessary,  but  to  the  accidental  in 
religion.  Hence  it  is  argued  that  it  is  a  gross  breach 
of  charity  for  us  to  assume  that  Hindus  and  others 
have  not  the  true  knowledge  of  God  as  well  as  our- 
selves, and  that  it  is  a  foolish  superstition  which  attrib- 
utes divine  inspiration  to  Moses  and  Paul,  while  deny- 
ing a  similar  inspiration  to  Sakya  Muni,  Gautama,  or 
Kapila.  And,  it  is  again  argued,  quite  correctly,  if 
these  premises  be  granted,  that  we  might  spend  our 
time  and  money  better  than  in  seeking  to  persuade 
Hindus  and  others  to  abandon  the  ancestral  faith 
which  God  has  given  to  their  race  for  an  alien  religion, 
however  good  that  alien  faith  may  be. 

But  all  this  talk  and  all  such  arguments  rest  upon  an 
assumption  which  is  utterly  false.  It  is  not  true  that 
the  differences,  e.  g.^  between  Hinduism  and  Christianity, 
are  merely  superficial  and  accidental.  They  respect,  not 
accidentals,  but  essentials.  They  are  of  such  a  sort  that 
if  one  religion  gives  a  true  account  of  God,  the  other 
gives  a  false  account  of  Him.  The  God  of  the  Hindus 
is  not  the  God  of  the  Christian.  The  salvation  which 
the  Hindu  seeks  is  not  the  salvation  which  we  seek. 
It  is  a  salvation  from  personal  existence,  and  not  a 
salvation  from  sin;  and  the  ways  prescribed  for  the 
attainment  of  this  supreme  good  are  as  opposed  as  are 
the  objects  sought.  Grant,  if  you  please,  that  the  city 
has  different  gates,  and  many  avenues  conduct  men  to 
it;  still,  if  that  city  lie  in  the  south,  we  shall  never 
reach  it  by  traveling  northeast.  Contradictories  cannot 
both  be  true.  And  in  regard  to  the  most  fundamental 
matters,  Hinduism  contradicts,  not  merely  Christianity, 
but  all  natural  religion  as  well.  (Kellogg,  "Hin- 
duism," p.  4  f . ) 

The  four  points  which  Dr.  Kellogg  selected 
as  illustrating  the  fundamental  divergent  positions 
of   Christianity   and   Hinduism  were  (1)  the  per- 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT    323 

• 
sonality  of  God,  (2)  the  existence,  separate  and 
distinct  from  God,  of  man,  the  world  and  all 
things  therein,  (3)  the  freedom  of  the  will,  (4) 
the  trustworthiness  of  our  consciousness  as  to  our 
own  personality  and  the  reality  of  the  external 
world,  Christianity  affirming  and  Hinduism  deny- 
ing each  of  these  four  fundamental  truths.  And 
what  more  fundamental  and  essential  difference 
could  there  be  than  that  between  pure  Buddhism 
and  Christianity  over  the  existence  of  God? 
''The  fact  cannot  be  disputed  away, "  says  Max 
Muller,  "that  the  religion  of  Buddha  was  from 
the  beginning  purely  atheistic."  (''The  Science 
of  Religion,"  p.  52.)  If  there  is  not  a  radical 
distinction  between  theism  and  atheism,  between 
God  and  the  denial  of  God,  what  distinctions  are 
possible?  Black  becomes  white,  yes  becomes  no, 
in  a  world  where  pure  Buddhism  and  Christianity 
are  viewed  as  essentially  alike.  How  can  a  religion 
which  annihilates  God  be  a  way  to  God? 

One  other  common  way  of  regarding  the  world   "Tke  Final 
religions  is  the  view  of  those  who  would  combine   Religion  to  be 
them, — who   regard   the  great  task  of  our  day,  as   ^  Symphony 
Mr.  Ranade   told  Dr.    Fairbairn   in   India,  to   be   °1^^^. 
"a  work   of   fusion."      Some,  like  Max  Muller, 
picture  the  union  in  architectural  metaphor: — 

The  science  of  religion,  which  at  present  is  but  a 
desire  and  a  seed,  will  in  time  become  a  fulfillment  and 
a  plenteous  harvest. 

When  that  time  of  harvest  has  come,  when  the 
deepest   foundations    of   all    the    religions    of   the  world 


Religions.' 


324   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

have  been  laid  free  and  restored,  who  knows  but  that 
those  very  foundations  may  serve  once  more,  like  the 
catacombs,  or  like  the  crypts  beneath  our  old  cathedrals, 
as  a  place  of  refuge  for  those  who,  to  whatever  creed 
they  may  belong,  long  for  something  better,  purer, 
older  and  truer  than  what  they  can  find  in  the  statutable 
sacrifices,  services,  and  sermons  of  the  days  in  which 
their  lot  on  earth  has  been  cast;  some  who  have  learnt 
to  put  away  childish  things,  call  them  genealogies, 
legends,  miracles  or  oracles,  but  who  cannot  part  with 
the  childlike  faith  of  their  heart. 

Though  leaving  much  behind  of  what  is  worshiped  or 
preached  in  Hindu  temples,  in  Buddhist  viharas,  in 
Mohammedan  mosques,  in  Jewish  synagogues,  and 
Christian  churches,  each  believer  may  bring  down  with 
him  into  that  quiet  crypt  what  he  values  most — his  own 
pearl  or  great  price:  the  Hindu  his  innate  disbelief  in 
this  world,  his  unhesitating  belief  in  another  world; 
the  Buddhist  his  perception  of  an  eternal  law,  his  sub- 
mission to  it,  his  gentleness,  his  pity  ;  the  Mohamme- 
dan, if  nothing  else,  at  least  his  sobriety  ;  the  Jew  his 
clinging,  through  good  and  evil  days,  to  the  One  God, 
who  loveth  righteousness,  and  whose  name  is  "I  am"; 
the  Christian,  that  which  is  better  than  all,  if  those 
who  doubt  it  would  only  try  it — our  love  of  God,  call 
Him  what  you  like,  the  infinite,  the  invisible,  the  im- 
mortal, the  Father,  the  highest  Self,  above  all,  and 
through  all,  and  in  all, — manifested  in  our  love  of  man, 
our  loving  of  the  living,  our  love  of  the  dead,  our  living 
and  undying  love. 

That  crypt,  though  as  yet  but  small  and  dark,  is 
visited  even  now  by  those  few  who  shun  the  noise  of 
many  voices,  the  glare  of  many  lights,  the  conflict  of 
many  opinions.  Who  knows  but  that  in  time  it  will 
grow  wider  and  brighter,  and  that  the  Crypt  of  the  Past 
may  become  the  Church  of  the  Future.  ("Hibbert 
Lectures,"  p.  377  f.) 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT    326 

Some,  like  Castelar,  express  the  unity  in  more 
varied  figure.  "Do  not,"  said  he,  "separate  the 
various  revelations  of  truth,  for  together  they 
form  that  invisible  atmosphere  which  is  called 
the  human  spirit.  The  prophets  did  not  speak  in 
Judea  alone,  they  drank  not  only  the  waters  of 
the  Jordan  and  the  Euphrates ;  but  they  spoke 
also  in  India,  and  they  drank  also  the  waters  of 
the  Ganges.  The  Egyptian  sorcerers,  the  Magi 
of  Babylon  and  the  Dualists  of  Persia  all  con- 
tributed to  the  great  Idea,  which  is  like  sap,  like 
blood,  like  lig'ht,  like  electricity,  like  the  juices 
of  the  earth,  like  the  gases  of  the  air,  like  the 
fluids  of  the  universe.  The  Idea  recognizes 
neither  nations,  sects  nor  churches  ;  it  passes  from 
pagoda  to  pyramid,  from  pyramid  to  synagogue, 
from  synagogue  to  basilica,  from  basilica  to  cathe- 
dral, from  cathedral  to  tribune,  with  a  course 
like  that  of  the  lightning.  The  way  for  Chris- 
tianity was  prepared  by  the  verses  of  Isaiah  and 
the  dialogues  of  Plato,  and  every  human  family 
has  contributed  its  contingent  to  the  universal 
revelation."  (Article  in  "The  Independent," 
May  31,  1894,  by  Emilio  Castelar,  "The  Parlia- 
ment of  Religions  in  iVmerica.") 

Still  others  dream  of  symphonizing  the  world's 
religions.  "Each  one  of  the  seven  great  religions 
that  exists  in  the  world  to-day,"  says  a  recent 
book,  "has  its  particular  note,  and  the  harmonious 
blending  of  the  notes  gives  us  a  genuine  symphony 
of   religions.      Listen   to    each    one   of    the   notes 


826  THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

that  each  of  these  seven  religions  sounds."  And 
what  are  the  notes?  From  Hinduism  the  note  of 
spirit,  absolutely  abrogating  the  idea  that  there 
is  any  such  thing  as  "dead"  matter,  "brute" 
matter,  because  "the  whole  world  of  matter  is 
thrilling,  throbbing,  pulsing  with  divine  energy 
and  divine  meaning";  from  Buddhism,  the  note 
of  "renunciation";  from  Zoroastrianism,  the 
note  of  conflict  and  victory;  from  Confucianism, 
the  note  of  order;  from  Judaism,  the  note  of 
righteousness ;  from  Mohammedanism,  the  note 
of  submission;  from  Christianity,  the  note  of 
love.  Or,  the  writer  goes  on,  the  figure  may  be 
changed  and  all  the  religions  of  the  world  likened 
to  separate  prismatic  colors  which  are  to  be 
blended  in  the  "pure  white  ray  of  universal 
religion."  That  religion — the  same  writer 
changes  the  metaphors  once  more — "can  only 
come  slowly,  gradually,  spontaneously  by  an 
organic,  evolutionary  process, — each  one  of  the 
great  extant  religions  dying  a  sectarian  death  in 
order  that  it  may  survive  in  spiritual  substance." 
(A.  W.  Martin,  in  "The  Unity  of  Religions, "  p. 
333  f.) 

As  we  have  already  seen,  Christianity  seeks 
and  rejoices  in  all  the  truth  it  can  find  anywhere, 
but  its  joy  is  not  in  the  discovery  of  truth  that  is 
new  to  it.  All  the  truth  of  the  other  religions 
it  already  knows.  These  "notes,"  so  far  as  they 
are  true,  are  all  in  Christianity.  It  is  the  sym- 
phony.     No  other  religion  strikes  any  single  note 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL  T  LIGHT    327 

as  truly  as  it  is  already  struck  in  Christianity.  It 
is  already  the  pure  white  light  of  the  universal 
religion.  The  truth  of  other  religions  will  be 
absorbed  in  it,  but  they  cannot  make  it.  And 
Christianity  is  already  the  temple.  No  other 
religion  can  supply  arches  or  columns  which  the 
temple  does  not  already  possess.  The  glory  of 
the  temple  will  only  be  full  when  all  nations 
bring  their  honor  into  it,  but  this  will  be  only 
the  perfect  use  of  a  temple  already  perfect;  not 
the  enlargement  of  a  building  that  awaits  any 
stones  unhewn  by  the  hands  of  Christ. 

But   if  we  may  not   take  any  of  these  views  of  What  are 
the   non-Christian   religions    in   their  relation   to   We  to 
Christianity,    if  we   are  to   hold  the   missionary  Think  of 
view  that  Christ  is  the  sole  and   sufficient  teacher  ^.    .   . 

L/hristian 

and  Saviour  of  mankind,  and  that  Christianity  is  Religions? 
the  final  and  absolute  religion,  then  what  are  we 
to  think  of  the  non-Christian  religions?  Are 
they  the  work  of  the  evil  one,  misleading  men 
from  their  true  allegiance,  or  are  they  part  of  the 
divine  education  of  humanity,  leading  men  on 
to  the  fuller  light?  Are  they  schoolmasters  to 
bring  men  to  Christ?  Thinking  of  them 
as  systems,  with  error  and  falsehood  w^-ought  in 
with  truth,  and  of  this  error  and  falsehood  as 
workins"  out  the  inevitable  and  terrible  effects 
which  must  always  follow  the  sanctification  of 
what  is  false  and  wrong,  some  students  of  com- 
parative religion  have  seen  in  the  non-Christian 
religions  the  handiwork  of  evil.      "It  cannot  be,'* 


328   THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

says  Mr.  Tisdall,  "that  the  same  tree  has  pro- 
duced the  abominations  associated  with  the  wor- 
ship of  Adonis,  Attis,  Osiris,  Mylitta,  Cybele, 
Ashtoreth,  on  the  one  hand,  and  Christianity, 
purity  and  lofty  conception  of  the  Divine  on  the 
other.  To  believe  that  the  vile  idea  of  phallic 
worship,  so  all  but  universal  in  the  Gentile 
world,  is  due  to  the  same  source  whence  sprang 
the  conception  of  the  Holy  God  of  Israel,  is 
possible  only  to  the  perverted  intellect. ' '  (Tisdall, 
"Comparative  Religion,"  p.  69.) 

"It  is  quite  popular  in  some  circles,"  says 
Bishop  Thoburn,  "and  is  supposed  by  many  to 
savor  of  learning  and  philosophy,  to  scout  the  old 
Christian  idea  that  all  the  great  religions  of  the 
world  except  Christianity  are  the  offspring  of  the 
devil,  and  to  hold  in  its  place  the  preposterous 
view  that  they  were  all  originated  and  developed 
by  God  Himself;  that  they  all  have  been,  and  still 
are,  serving  their  purpose,  each  in  its  own  sphere, 
in  the  education  of  the  human  race,  and  all 
jointly  contributing  to  what  might  be  called  the 
religious  evolution  of  mankind.  For  one,  I  con- 
fess to  a  little  impatience  with  this  kind  of  so- 
called  philosophy.  I  have  no  more  respect  for 
Mohammedanism  as  a  system  than  for  Mormon- 
ism.  I  do  not  believe  that  God  had  any  more  to 
do  with  the  foundation  of  the  one  system  than  of 
the  other,  nor  do  I  believe  that  He  was  in  any  way 
more  responsible  for  the  origin  and  development 
of  Brahminism  or  Buddhism  than  for  the  origin 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL  7'  LIGHT     329 

of  the  worship  of  Baal,  or  the  sacred  animals  of 
Egypt.  It  is  simply  nonsense  to  talk  in  this  way 
with  the  facts  of  the  religious  life  of  the  race 
spread  out  before  us  as  they  are.  That  God  has 
had  much  to  do  in  guiding,  restraining,  and 
oftentimes  resisting,  the  progress  of  these  various 
systems,  everyone  will  admit  who  believes  in  the 
divine  administration  of  the  government  of  this 
world;  but  to  make  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth 
responsible  for  sin,  and  folly,  and  error,  and 
falsehood,  and  injustice,  and  iniquity  in  a  thou- 
sand forms,  is  a  kind  of  philosophy  which  intel- 
ligent Christians  can  well  afford  to  discard." 
(Thoburn,  ''Missionary  Addresses,"  "The  Moral 
State  of  the  Heathen,"  p.  78  f.) 

These  are  the  judgments  forced  upon  men  who 
have  given  their  lives  for  the  non-Christian 
peoples,  when  they  look  at  the  evils  which  are  an 
integral  part  of  the  non-Christian  religions  as 
systems.  But  when  these  same  men  turn  to  the 
good  which  they  see  about  them,  they  are  quick 
to  recognize  that  as  of  God.  All  that  we  find, 
in  whatever  ethnic  faith,  that  evinces  any  long- 
ing for  communion  between  man  and  his  Maker, 
every  noble  sentiment  of  poet  or  philosopher, 
every  instinct  which  leads  men  to  look  above  and 
beyond  the  grave,  is  welcome  as  a  sign  that  God's 
grace  was  all  the  time  working  in  men's  hearts, 
that,  though  feebly  and  amid  many  fearful  mis- 
takes, some  portion  of  the  race — every  one,  in 
whatever  tribe   or  nation,  who  sought  God — was 


830    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

receiving  a  divinely    imparted    education.      (Tis- 
dall,  "Comparative  Religion,"  p.  86.) 

When  we  take  the  truth  of  Christianity  as  an 
hypothesis.  Mr.  Tisdall  adds,  all  becomes  plain. 
*''We  see  that  false  ideas  are  perversions  of  true 
ones,  evil  practices  corruptions  of  good.  We 
perceive  light  shining  amidst  the  gloom.  Even 
the  abominations  of  human  sacrifice,  and  the 
cannibal  rites  too  often  associated  with  it,  are 
seen  to  have  a  great  truth  underlying  them.'* 
(P.  123.)  The  gloom  itself  is  proof  of  light  and 
a  call  to  the  light. 
The  View  of  And  it  is  just  because  missionaries  do  believe 
the  Edinburgh  so  surely  in  the  absoluteness  of  Christianity,  and 
Missionary  ^j.g  g^  de^i-  \\\^\.  none  of  the  evil  of  the  world  can 
be  of  God,  that  they  are  able  to  deal  in  love  with 
what  is  false  and  imperfect  and  to  see  and  exalt 
whatever  they  find  of  good.  We  cannot  do  better 
than  try  to  take  up  their  attitude  as  it  is  described 
in  the  Report  of  the  World  Missionary  Confer- 
ence at  Edinburgh,  of  the  Commission  on  "The 
Missionary  Message  in  Relation  to  Non-Christian 
Religions."  In  summing  up  the  remarkable 
body  of  evidence  gathered  from  missionaries 
dealing  with  all  the  non-Christian  religions,  the 
Report  says: — 

There  are  two  very  notable  points  in  that  evidence 
which  may  be  noticed  in  this  place.  The  first  of  these 
is  the  practically  universal  testimony  that  the  true  atti- 
tude of  the  Christian  missionary  to  the  non-Christian 
religions  should  be  one  of  true  understanding  and,  as 
far  as  possible,  of  sympathy.     That  there  are  elements 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT     831 

in  all  these  religions  which  lie  outside  the  possibility  of 
sympathy  is,  of  course,  recognized,  and  that  in  some 
forms  of  religion  the  evil  is  appalling  is  also  clear. 
But  nothing  is  more  remarkable  than  the  agreement  that 
the  true  method  is  that  of  knowledge  and  charity,  that 
the  missionary  should  seek  for  the  nobler  elements 
in  the  non-Christian  religions  and  use  them  as  steps  to 
higher  things;  that,  in  fact,  all  these  religions,  without 
exception,  disclose  elemental  needs  of  the  human  soul 
which  Christianity  alone  can  satisfy,  and  that  in  their 
higher  forms  they  plainly  manifest  the  working  of  the 
Spirit  of  God.  On  all  hands  the  merely  polemic  and 
iconoclastic  attitude  is  condemned  as  radically  unwise 
and  unjust. 

But,  along  with  this  generous  recognition  of  all  that 
is  true  and  good  in  these  religions,  there  goes  also  the 
universal  and  emphatic  witness  to  the  absoluteness  of 
the  Christian  faith.  Superficial  criticism  might  say  that 
these  two  attitudes  are  incompatible,  that  if  Christianity 
alone  is  true  and  final,  all  other  religions  must  be  false, 
and  that  as  falsehoods  they  should  be  denounced  as 
such. 

Against  that  criticism  we  may,  in  the  first  place,  set 
the  massive  fact  that  the  great  weight  of  evidence  before 
us  shows  that  these  witnesses  do  not  feel  this  contra- 
diction. 

Deeper  consideration  of  the  facts  indeed  leads  us  to 
the  conviction  that  it  is  precisely  because  of  the  strength 
of  their  conviction  as  to  the  absoluteness  of  Christianity 
that  our  correspondents  find  it  possible  to  take  this 
more  generous  view  of  the  non-Christian  religions. 
They  know  that  in  Christ  they  have  what  meets  the 
whole  range  of  human  need,  and  therefore  they  value 
all  that  reveals  that  need,  however  imperfect  the  revela- 
tion may  be. 

This  very  charity  and  tolerance,  on  the  other  hand, 
makes  more  impressive  the  agreement   as   to   the   abso- 


332    THE  LTGHl  OF  THE  WORLD 


Christianity 
the  Final  and 
Absolute 
Religion. 


The  Only 
Religion  Ex- 
emplifying 
Its  Claim  to 
Universality. 


luteness  and  finality  of  Christ.  Nowhere  is  the  slightest 
support  found  for  the  idea  that  Christianity  is  only  one 
religion  among  others,  or  that  all  religions  are  simply 
dfferent  ways  of  seeking  the  one  Father,  and  are  there- 
fore equally  pleasing  in  His  sight.  One  massive  con- 
viction animates  the  whole  evidence  that  Jesus  Christ 
fulfills  and  supersedes  all  other  religions,  and  that  the 
day  is  approaching  when  to  Him  every  knee  shall  bow 
and  every  tongue  confess  that  He  is  Lord  to  the  glory 
of  God  the  Father. 

But  if  we  are  to  attain  this  position  and  to  go 
out  from  these  studies  with  a  firmer  motive  and  a 
larger  jDurpose,  we  must  look  fairly  at  some  of  the 
conclusions  of  this  comparison  of  the  world's 
religions  which  bear  on  the  claim  of  Christianity 
to  be  the  final  and  absolute  religion  of  the  world. 

1.  In  the  first  place  it  is  a  significant  fact  that 
Christianity  is  the  only  religion  which  is  trying 
to  make  good  its  claim  to  universalism.  None 
of  the  non-Christian  religions  is  making  any  real 
effort  to  do  so.  Mohammedanism  is  spreading 
in  Africa  and  India,  but  it  makes  no  effort  of  any 
significance  to  convert  America  or  Europe  or 
Japan.  The  bounds  of  Confucianism  are  con- 
tracting. Shintoism  has  withdrawn  from  the 
lists  as  a  religion,  and  claims  now  only  the  place 
of  a  court  ceremonial  and  a  burial  rite.  Zoroas- 
trianism,  one  of  the  worthiest  of  the  ancient 
religions,  has  almost  vanished  in  the  land  of  its 
origin,  and  numbers  comparatively  few  adherents 
in  India.  Hinduism  is  geographically  limited, 
save  as  a  philosophy,  by  its  principle  of  caste,  and 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT  LIGHT    333 

Buddhism  is  rejected  in  Japan  by  the  very  men 
who  might  succeed  in  propagating  it  elsewhere. 
But  Christianity  is  moving  out  over  all  the  earth 
witb  steadily  increasing  power,  with  ever  mul- 
tiplying agencies,  with  ever  enlarged  devotion, 
and  with  open  and  undiscourageable  purpose  to 
conquer  the  world.  And  not  less  significant 
than  the  f^ct  of  Christianity's  missionary  purpose, 
is  the  method^of  it.  With  no  Ji-ust  in  secular 
support,  in*Tpite  of  all  slanders'  which* 'Chai-^fev 
otherwise,  with  purely,  moral  agencies  and  with 
fair  comparison  of  its  treasures  with  anything 
that  the  world  can  offer,  Christianity  goes  fear- 
lessly forth  to  deal  with  all  the  life  and  thought 
of  man  and  to  solve  his  problems  and  meet  his 
needs  in  the  name  and  strength  of  God.  One 
single  illustration  may  suffice  to  show  the  differ- 
ence between  its  competence  and  philosophic 
candor  and  the  incompetence  and  partial  plead- 
ing of  the  other  religions.  It  concerns  the  fun- 
damental question  as  to  what  are  the  tests  of  a 
revelation.  This  is  the  answer  of  the  Catechism 
of  the  Arya  Samaj,  representing  the  purest  exist- 
ing form  of  Vedic  religion: — 

1.  It  should  not  conflict  with  the  natural  laws. 

2.  It  ought  to  comprise  precepts  which  are  conform- 
able to  the  divine  attributes. 

3.  It  contains  the  germs  of  all  the  true  sciences. 

4.  It   should   be   communicated  as  soon  as  the  world 
comes  into  existence. 

5.  The  divine  commandments  it  contains  must  not  be 
contradictory  to  one  another. 


334    THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

6.  It  should  not  instruct  us  to  believe  in  a  mediator, 
saviour  or  prophet  who  pretends  to  secure  for  us  heaven 
or  hell. 

7.  It  must  be  inspired  in  the  language  which  is  not 
spoken  in  any  country  lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

8.  It  embraces  no  historical  and  biographical  events. 

9.  It  should  be  compatible  with  true  sciences  and  its 
principles  should  stand  to  reason. 

10.  It  does  not  sanction  the  killing  of  animated 
beings. 

Compare  this  with  the  answer  of  the  Christian 
philosopher  meeting  Hinduism  with  the  Christian 
message : — 

1.  What  is  the  idea  of  God  revealed  and  what  power 
has  that  idea  had  upon  individual  and  social  life? 

2.  What  is  the  character  of  those  who  have  assisted 
in  propagating  the  revelation? 

3.  What  is  the  progressive  character  of  the  religion 
based  on  the  revelation?  Has  it  shown  itself  capable  of 
keeping  pace  with  the  advance  of  civilization? 

4.  What  is  the  character  of  its  founder  as  revealer, 
and  inspirer  and  redeemer  of  men? 

5.  What  is  the  spiritual  effect  of  the  revelation 
upon  those  who  sincerely  act  upon  it? 

(From  Lecture  of  Prof.  George  T.  Ladd  on  ''Revela- 
tion and  Inspiration,"  delivered  in  Madras,  February, 
1900. ) 

Christianity     alone     possesses     credentials     to 
absolutism  and  finality  which    it  can  present   and 
is  presenting  to  the  world. 
Its  Unique  ^-   At  the  root  of  all  things  is  the  idea  of  God. 

and  Superior     Here   all   religions   meet   to    be   judged.       ''The 
Idea  of  God.      truth  and  the  good  inherent    in  all    forms  of   reli- 
gion is   that,  in  all,  man   seeks  after   God.      The 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL  T  LIGHT    335 

finality  of  Christianity  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  re- 
veals the  God  for  whom  man  seeks."  (Jevons, 
* 'Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Comparative  Reli- 
gion," p.  258.)  The  best  that  can  be  said  of  any 
non-Christian  religion  is  that  it  is  seeking  for 
that  which  Christianity  possesses, — the  true  and 
perfect  God.  ''The  conception  of  God,"  says 
Dr.  William  Newton  Clarke,  "with  which  Chris- 
tianity addresses  the  world,  is  the  best  that  man 
can  form  or  entertain."  If  it  is  asked,  "What  is 
that  excellence  in  Christianity  by  virtue  of  which 
it  is  entitled  to  be  a  missionary  religion  and  de- 
serves to  be  received  by  all  men?"  — the  answer 
is: — 

Christianity  is  entitled  to  be  a  missionary  religion  and 
to  displace  all  other  religions,  because  of  its  God. 

There  are  many  glories  in  the  religion  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  it  can  do  many  services  for  men ;  but  its 
crowning  glory,  or  rather  the  sum  of  all  its  glory,  is  its 
God.  Christianity  has  such  a  conception  of  God  as  no 
other  religion  has  attained;  and,  what  is  more,  it  pro- 
claims and  brings  to  pass  such  an  experience  of  God  as 
humanity  has  never  elsewhere  known.  It  is  in  this  that 
we  find  that  superiority  which  entitles  Christianity  to 
offer  itself  to  all  mankind. 

It  is  necessary  to  tell  in  few  words  what  this  God  is 
who  is  the  glory  of  Christianity  and  the  ground  of  its 
boldness  in  missionar}'  advances, — this  God  so  infinitely 
excellent  that  all  men  may  well  afford  to  forget  all  their 
own  religions,  if  they  may  but  know  Him.  The  God  of 
Christianity  is  one,  the  sole  source,  Lord  and  end  of  all. 
He  is  holy,  having  in  Himself  the  character  that  is  the 
worthy  standard  for  all  beings.  He  is  love,  reaching 
out  to  save  the  world  from  sin  and  fill  it  with  His  own 
goodness.      He    is    wise,    knowing    how    to    accomplish 


336        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

His  heart's  desire.  He  is  Father  in  heart,  looking  upon 
His  creatures  as  His  own,  and  seeking  their  welfare. 
All  this  truth  concerning  Himself  He  has  made  known 
in  Jesus  Christ  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  in  Whom  His 
redemptive  will  has  found  expression,  and  His  saving 
love  has  come  forth  to  mankind.   ... 

Set  over  against  this  conception  of  God  the 
views  which  we  have  seen  that  the  non-Christian 
religions  take  of  Him,  and  it  does  not  need  to  be 
shown  that  the  religion  of  the  Christian  God 
has  supreme  rights  among  men. 

A  religion  that  can  proclaim  such  a  God,  and  pro- 
claim Him  on  the  ground  of  experience,  is  adapted  to 
all  men,  and  is  worthy  of  all  acceptation.  Since  Chris- 
tianity is  the  religion  of  such  a  God,  Christianity 
deserves  possession  of  the  world.  It  has  the  right  to 
offer  itself  boldly  to  all  men,  and  to  displace  all  other 
religions,  for  no  other  religion  offers  what  it  brings.  It 
is  the  best  that  the  world  contains.  Because  of  its 
doctrine  and  experience  of  the  perfect  God,  it  is  the 
best  that  the  world  can  contain.  Its  contents  can  be 
unfolded  and  better  known,  but  they  cannot  be  essen- 
tially improved  upon.  At  heart,  Christianity  is  simply 
the  revelation  of  the  perfect  God,  doing  the  work  of 
perfect  love  and  holiness  for  His  creatures,  and  trans- 
forming men  into  His  own  likeness  so  that  they  will  do 
the  works  of  love  and  holiness  towards  their  fellows. 
Than  this  nothing  can  be  better.  Therefore,  Christianity 
has  full  right  to  be  a  missionary  religion,  and  Christians 
are  called  to  be  a  missionary  people.  (Clarke,  "A 
Study  of  Christian  Missions,"  pp.  10,  11,  19.) 

Its  Rickness  ^'   ^^"^"^  i^s  unique  and  adequate  conception  of 

God,  it  follows  that  Christianity  has  a  message 
to  the  world  which  is  full  of  notes  which  the 
non-Christian  religions  do  not  and  cannot  possess. 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL7'  LIGHT     887 


Even  ideas  which  some  of  these  religions  share 
with  Christianity,  such  as  "belief  in  an  after  life, 
in  the  difference  between  right  and  wrong,  and 
that  the  latter  deserves  punishment;  in  the  need 
of  an  atonement  for  sin;  in  the  efficacy  of  prayer; 
in  the  universal  presence  of  spiritual  powers  of 
some  kind"  (Tisdall,  ''Comparative  Religion,'* 
p.  91)  ;  belief  in  the  sovereignty  of  God,  in  the 
immanence  of  God,  in  the  transitoriness  and 
vanity  of  this  earthly  life  on  one  hand,  and  in 
the  infinite  significance  of  this  life  and  the  sacred- 
ness  of  the  human  order  on  the  other, — have  a 
relationship  and  a  significance  in  Christianity,! 
with  its  perfect  God,  which  makes  them  totally 
different  from  the  conceptions  of  other  religions. 
And  beside  these,  Christianity  has  a  whole  world ' 
of  conceptions  of  its  own, — the  fatherhood  of 
God,  the  brotherhood  of  man,  redemption,  the 
incarnation  of  a  personal  God,  atonement,  char- 
acter, service,  fellowship.  And  "Christianity 
alone  of  the  religions  of  the  world  teaches  that 
self-sacrifice  is  the  way  to  life  eternal." 
(Dennis,  "The  Message  of  Christianity,"  p.  28; 
Jevons,  "Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Compara- 
tive Religion,"  p,  69.)  Some  of  these  ideas  are 
so  great  and  so  distinctive  that  they  must  be 
looked  at  separately. 

4.  In  its  conception  of  sin,  in  its  provision 
for  sin's  forgiveness  and  defeat,  and  in  its  ideal 
of  salvation  and  the  free  offer  of  its  salvation  to 
every  man,  Christianity  is  unique  and  satisfying. 


,-?>. 


V^ 


Its  Conception 
of  Sin  and 
Salvation. 


338        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

Christianity  sees  sin  as  the  supreme  evil  in  the 
world,  it  regards  it  as  a  want  of  conformity  to  the 
perfect  will  of  God,  or  as  transgression  of  His 
perfect  law;  it  teaches  that  sin  is  not  a  matter  of 
act  only,  but  also  of  thought  and  desire  and  will, — 
a  taint  in  the  nature;  it  insists  that  God  is  not 
responsible  for  it  or  for  any  evil ;  it  emphasizes 
the  guilt  and  horror  of  it,  and  the  deadly  con- 
sequences both  for  time  and  for  eternity,  and  it 
opens  to  man  a  way  of  full  forgiveness  and  of 
clean  victory.  In  contrast  with  this  view,  Mo- 
/hammedanism  teaches  that  sin  is  only  the  wilful 
violation  of  God's  law;  sins  of  ignorance  it  does 
not  recognize;  its  doctrine  of  God's  sovereignty 
fixes  the  responsibility  for  sin  on  God  and  dis- 
solves the  sense  of  guilt,  and  it  denies  the  evil 
taint  of  sin  in  human  nature.  In  Hinduism  sin 
as  opposition  to  the  will  of  a  personal  God  is 
inconceivable;  it  is  the  inevitable  result  of  the 
acts  of  a  previous  state  of  being;  it  is  evil,  because 
all  existence  and  all  action,  good  as  well  as  bad, 
are  evil,  and  it  is  illusion,  as  all  things  are  illu- 
sion. In  pure  Buddhism  there  can  be  no  sin  in 
our  sense  of  the  word,  because  there  is  no  God; 
sin  there  means  ^  ^thirst, "  "desire,"  and  what 
Buddhism  seeks  to  escape  is  not  the  evil  of  life 
only,  but  life  itself;  and  its  conception  of  the  sins 
that  impede,  while  including  much  that  is  im- 
moral, does  not  include  all,  and  does  include 
much  on  the  other  hand  that  has  no  immoral 
character  at  all.      Confucianism  makes  no  mention 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT    339 

of  man's  relation  to  God,  and  totally  lacks  all 
conception  of  sin.  In  one  word,  Christianity  is 
the  only  religion  in  the  world  which  clearly 
diagnoses  the  disease  of  humanity  and  discovers 
what  it  is  that  needs  to  be  healed  and  that 
attempts  permanently  and  radically  to  deal  with 
it. 

And  so,  also,  Christianity  alone  knows  what\ 
the  salvation  is  which  men  require,  and  makes 
provision  for  it.  In  Christianity  salvation  is  sal- 
vation from  the  power  and  the  presence  of  sin,  I 
as  well  as  from  its  guilt  and  shame.  Its  end  is 
holy  character  and  loving  service.  It  is  available 
for  men  here  and  now.  In  the  Mohammedan  -^ 
conception  salvation  consists  in  deliverance  from 
punishment,  and  deliverance  not  by  redemption 
and  the  sacrifice  of  love,  but  by  God's  absolute 
sovereignty.  The  Hindu  idea  of  salvation  is  to 
escape  from  the  sufferings  incident  to  life,  to  be 
liberated  from  personal,  conscious  existence,  and 
this  liberation  is  to  be  won  by  the  way  of  knowl- 
edge, knowledge  being  the  recognition  of  the 
soul's  essential  identity  with  Brahma,  the  imper- 
sonal God,  or  by  the  way  of  devotion,  devotion 
being  not  faith  in  a  God  who  works  for  the  soul, 
but  the  maintenance  by  the  soul  of  a  saving 
attitude  of  mind  toward  the  deity  chosen  to  be 
worshiped.  This  is  actual  Hinduism,  not  the 
nobler  doctrine  of  the  Vedas.  In  Buddhism  sal- 
vation is  the  extinction  of  existence.  Indeed, 
there    is  no  soul   recognized   by  pure   Buddhism. 


340 


THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 


History, 
Progress  and. 
Spiritual 
Freedom. 


There  is  only  the  Karma,  or  character,  which 
survives,  and  every  man  must  work  out  his  own 
Karma  unaided.  "By  one's  self,"  it  is  written 
in  the  Dhammapada,  "the  evil  is  done;  by  one's 
self  one  suffers;  by  one's  self  evil  is  left  undone; 
by  one's  self  one  is  purified.  Lo,  no  man  can 
purify  another."  The  best  Northern  Buddhism, 
as  we  have  seen,  draws  nearest  to  Christianity  in 
its  conception  of  a  salvation  by  faith  in  Amitaba 
Buddha,  but  even  here  the  salvation  is  release 
from  the  necessity  of  continued  rebirths,  not  a 
creation  of  new  character  for  human  service  in 
divine  loyalty.  Confucianism  has  no  doctrine  of 
salvation.  The  Chinese  soul  has  had  to  turn,  in 
the  attempt  to  satisfy  its  needs,  to  other  teachers. 
In  its  ideal  and  offer  of  salvation  Christianity 
stands  alone.  (Kellogg,  "Comparative  Reli- 
gion," Ch.  IV,  V.) 

5.  Christianity  is  the  only  religion  which  is  at 
once  historical,  progressive  and  spiritually  free. 
Therefore,  it  is  the  only  religion  which  can 
claim  universal  dominion.  Each  religion  of  the 
world  has  filled  a  place  in  history,  but  Moham- 
medanism is  the  only  one  whose  historical  facts 
are  essential  to  it,  and  as  Bishop  Westcott  says, — 

Christianity  is  historical  not  simply  in  the  sense  in 
which,  for  example,  Mohammedanism  is  historical, 
because  the  facts  connected  with  the  origin  and  growth 
of  this  religion,  with  the  personalty  and  life  of  the 
Founder,  with  the  experience  and  growth  of  His  doc- 
trine, can  be  traced  in  documents  which  are  adequate 
to  assure  belief;  but  in  a  far  different  sense  also.  It  is 
historical  in  its  antecedents,  in  its  realization,  in  itself; 


CHRIST.  THE  ONLY  LIGHT    341 


it  is  historical  as  crowning  a  long  period  of  religious 
training  which  was  accomplished  under  the  influence  of 
divine  facts;  it  is  historical  as  brought  out  in  all  its 
fullness  from  age  to  age  in  an  outward  society  by  the 
action  of  the  Spirit  of  God;  but  above  all,  and  most 
characteristically,  it  is  historical  because  the  revelation 
which  it  brings  is  of  life  and  in  life.  The  history  of 
Christ  is  the  Gospel  in  its  light  and  in  its  power.  His 
teaching  is  Himself,  and  nothing  apart  from  Himself; 
what  He  is  and  what  He  does.  The  earliest  creed — the 
creed  of  baptism — is  the  affirmation  of  facts  which 
include  all  doctrine. 

Dogmatic  systems  may  change,  and  have  changed  so 
far  as  they  reflect  transitory  phases  of  speculative 
thought,  but  the  primitive  gospel  is  unchangeable  as  it 
is  inexhaustible.  There  can  be  no  addition  to  it.  It 
contains  in  itself  all  that  will  be  slowly  wrought  out  in 
thought  and  deed  until  the  consummation. 

In  this  sense,  Christianity  is  the  only  historical  reli- 
gion. The  message  which  it  proclaims  is  wholly  unique. 
Christ  said,  I  am — not  I  declare,  or  I  lay  open,  or  I 
point  to,  but  I  am — the  Way,  the  Truth  and  the  Life. 
(Westcott,  ''Religious  Thought  in  the  West,"  p.  346  f . ) 

And  Christianity  is  the  only  progressive  reli- 
gion. Northern  Buddhism  has  progressed  by  a 
change  which  has  completely  altered  its  character 
from  that  of  Southern  Buddhism,  but  the  Japanese 
people,  who  have  carried  it  farthest,  no  longer 
regard  it  as  capable  of  adaptation  to  the  needs  of 
a  progressive  society.  Confucianism  is  by  its 
very  principle  unprogressive.  It  is  an  appeal  to 
ancient  precedents.  Of  Mohammedanism  and 
Hinduism,  let  two  competent  witnesses  speak. 
Of  Mohammedanism,  Professor  Kuenen: — 

Islam  was  destined,  after  a  very  brief  period  of 
growth  and  development,  to   stereotype   itself   once   for 


342       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE  WORLD 

all  and  assume  its  unalterable  shape.  Succeeding  gener- 
ations, and  nations  with  other  mental  equipment,  might 
add  to  it  from  their  own  stores,  and  might  attempt  to 
modify  and  expand  its  rigid  form.  Only  for  a  time, 
and  indeed  only  in  appearance,  could  these  attempts 
succeed.  Almost  as  old  as  Islam  itself  and  destined  to 
last  as  long,  there  stood  and  there  stand  immovable  the 
Koran  and  the  Tradition.  The  better  they  were  fitted 
partly  to  inspire  and  partly  to  subdue  Mohammed's 
fellow  countrymen,  and  so  in  the  first  period  to  work 
marvels,  the  more  uncompromisingly  do  they  bar  the 
way  to  the  realization  of  their  own  ideal — the  spread  of 
Islam  amongst  all  the  children  of  men.  True  univer- 
salism  is  to  Islam,  in  virtue  of  its  very  origin,  unattain- 
able.     (Kuenen,  "Hibbert  Lectures,"  p.  54.) 

And  of  Hinduism,  Dr.  Hume: — 

If,  as  we  believe,  (Christianity  is  the  fullest  interpre- 
tation of  universal  religion  which  has  yet  been  made, 
and  if  it  is  a  growing  religion  in  which  there  is  room 
for  all  fuller  knowledge  that  may  come  to  mankind, 
and  is  one  which  adapts  itself  to  various  races  and 
individuals  according  to  their  individual  and  varying 
needs,  then  Christianity,  as  now  developing  and  to  be 
developed  hereafter,  will  become  the  religion  of  India 
and  of  the  world.  Prof.  E.  W.  Hopkins,  successor  of 
Prof.  W.  D.  Whitney  of  Yale,  after  visits  to  India  and 
after  exceptional  study  of  the  religions  of  India,  thus 
speaks  in  his  book  on  ''The  Religions  of  India":  "In 
her  own  religions  there  is  no  hope  for  India,  and  her 
best  minds  have  renounced  them.  The  body  of  Hin- 
duism is  corrupt,  its  soul  is  evil.  As  for  Brahmanism — 
the  Brahmanism  that  produced  the  Upanishads — the 
spirit  is  departed  and  the  form  that  remains  is  dead." 
(Hume,  "Missions  from  the  Modern  View,"  p.  189.) 

And  so,  also,  in  Christianity  alone  is  there 
spiritual  freedom.      In  Indian  pantheism,  Chinese 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL  T  LIGHT    343 

polytheism,  or  the  Buddhist  predestinarianism  of 
Karma,  there  can  be  no  personal  spiritual  free- 
dom. Can  there  be  in  Islam?  If  it  is  not  there, 
it  is  nowhere  outside  of  Christianity.  Let  another 
competent  witness  answer.  Professor  Macdonald 
first  quotes  the  Moslem  theologian,  Al-Ghazzali, 
who  is  commenting  on  the  Koran: — 

He  whom  Allah  wills  to  guide,  he  opens  his  breast  to 
Islam  ;  and  he  whom  he  wills  to  lead  astray,  he  narrows 
his  breast.  He  is  the  guider  aright  and  the  leader 
astray ;  he  does  what  he  wills,  and  decides  what  he 
wishes ;  there  is  no  opposer  of  his  decision  and  no 
repeller  of  his  decree.  He  created  the  Garden  and 
created  for  it  a  people,  then  used  them  in  obedience; 
and  he  created  the  Fire,  and  created  for  it  a  people, 
then  used  them  in  rebellion ;  and  he  informed  his 
creation  of  the  sign  of  the  people  of  the  Garden  and  of 
the  sign  of  the  people  of  the  Fire;  then  said,  ''The  pure 
are  in  pleasure  and  the  impure  are  in  Jahim"  ("blazing 
fire,"  i.  e.,  hell.)  Then  he  said,  as  has  been  handed 
down  from  the  Prophet,  "These  are  in  the  Garden,  and 
I  care  not;  and  these  are  in  the  Fire,  and  I  care  not." 
So  he  is  Allah  Most  High,  the  King,  the  Reality;  "He 
is  not  asked  concerning  what  he  does ;  but  they  are 
asked." 

And  then  Professor  Macdonald  adds: — 
This  is  the  end  of  the  whole  matter,  and  to  this  must 
return  the  vision  of  the  Moslem  mystic  and  the  ecstasy 
of  the  Moslem  saint:  the  dreams  of  a  lover  and  a 
beloved,  and  the  groanings  and  travailings  of  creation. 
Whenever  the  devout  life,  with  its  spiritual  aspirations 
and  fervent  longings,  touches  the  scheme  of  Moslem 
theology,  it  must  thus  bend  and  break.  For  it,  within 
Islam  itself,  there  is  no  place.  (Macdonald,  "Religious 
Attitude  and  Life  in  Islam,"  p.  300  f . ) 


344       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

Because  it  is  founded  in  historic  facts  and 
dowered  with  reality,  because  it  is  expansive  to 
all  the  need  and  movement  of  life,  and  because  it 
is  free  and  the  fountain  of  that  true  freedom 
wherewith  only  the  Son  can  make  men  free, 
Christianity  is  the  only  religion  adapted  to 
universal  dominion. 

6.  The  ethical  uniqueness  of  Christianity 
entitles  it  to  absorb  and  displace  all  other  reli- 
gions. It  alone  makes  the  moral  character  of 
God  the  central, and  transcendent  thing.  Judged 
by  its  God,  no  other  gods  are  really  good.  It 
alone  presents  a  perfect  ethical  ideal  for  the 
individual  and  it  alone  possesses  a  social  ethic 
adequate  for  a  true  national  life  and  for  a  world 
society.  It  is  pre-eminently  the  ethical  religion. 
All  its  values  are  moral  values.  All  the  best  life 
of  Christian  lands  is  an  effort  to  embody  the 
Christian  ethics  in  life,  and  those  ethics  shelter 
absolutely  none  of  the  evil  of  Christian  lands. 
^' There  is  hardly  a  more  trustworthy  sign  and  a 
safer  criterion  of  the  civilization  of  a  people, " 
says  the  anthropologist  Waitz,  ^'than  the  degree 
in  which  the  demands  of  a  pure  morality  are 
supported  by  their  religion  and  are  interwoven 
with  their  religious  life."  And  this  is  the  true 
test  of  religions  also.  Do  they  supply  men  with 
perfect  moral  ideals?  Do  they  condemn  evil  and 
refuse  to  allow  evil  to  shelter  itself  under  reli- 
gious sanction?     On  one  or  both   of  these   issues 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT  LIGHT    345 

every  non-Christian  religion  breaks  down.  There 
is  much  worthy  moral  teaching  in  each  of  the 
non-Christian  religions,  but  the  Koran  enjoined 
the  enslavement  of  the  women  and  children  of 
unbelievers  conquered  in  battle,  and  authorized 
unlimited  concubinage,  and  its  sanction  of  polyg- 
amy cannot  be  defended  as  in  the  interest  of 
morality.  "Polygamy,"  said  Dr.  Plenry  H. 
Jessup,  "has  not  diminished  licentiousness  among 
Mohammedans."  (Jessup,  "The  Mohammedan 
Missionary  Problem,"  p.  46  f. )  Even  in  the 
Vedas  there  are  ^^assages  which  are  morally  de- 
barred from  publication.  "I  dare  not  give  and 
you  dare  not  print,"  v^n'ote  the  Rev.  S.  Williams, 
"the  ipsissi7na  verba  of  an  English  version  of  the 
original  Yajar  Veda  Mantras."  ("Indian  Evan- 
gelical Review,"  January,  1891.)  In  the  Bhag- 
avata  Purana  the  character  of  the  god  Krishna  is 
distinguished  by  licentiousness.  And  worst  of 
all  in  the  Hindu  ethics,  even  in  the  Bhagavad- 
gita,  it  is  taught  that  actions  in  themselves  do 
not  defile  one,  if  only  they  are  performed  in  the 
state  of  mind  enjoined  in  the  poem.  While 
Buddhist  and  Confucianist  ethics  are  deficient 
in  active  benevolence  and  human  service.  "Be  ye 
perfect,  as  your  heavenly  father  is  perfect,"  is  a 
conception  peculiar  to  Christianity. 

And    when    we    turn    to  the   social    aspects  of  i^g  Socfal 
comparative   ethics,  we  see  with    equal    clearness   Superiority, 
the    uniqueness    of    Christianity.      Jevons    points 


346        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

out  one  element  of  this  superiority  of  Christianity 
over  all  other  religions: — 

What  differentiates  Christianity  from  other  ethical 
religions,  and  from  other  forms  of  monotheism,  is  that 
in  them  religion  appears  as  ancillary  to  morality,  and 
imposes  penalties  and  rewards  with  a  view  to  enforce  or 
encourage  morality.  In  them,  at  their  highest,  the  love 
of  man  is  for  his  fellow  man,  and  usually  for  himself. 
Christianity  alone  makes  love  of  God  to  be  the  true 
basis  and  the  only  end  of  society,  both  that  whereby 
personality  exists  and  the  end  in  which  it  seeks  its 
realization.  Therein  the  Christian  theory  of  society 
differs  from  all  others.  Not  merely  does  it  hold  that 
man  cannot  make  himself  better  without  making  society 
better,  that  development  of  personality  cannot  be 
effected  without  a  (^rresponding  development  of 
society.  But  it  holds  that  such  moral  development  and 
improvement  of  the  individual  and  of  society  can  find 
no  rational  basis,  and  has  no  rational  end,  save  in  the 
love  of  God.  (Jevons,  ''Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Comparative  Religion,"  p.  260.) 

But  the  precise  form  of  Christianity's  social 
superiority  to  other  religions  is  less  significant 
than  the  great  fact  that  the  ethics  of  religions 
like  Brahmanism  and  Buddhism  are  not  social  at 
all.  ''At  the  best,"  says  Hobhouse,  ''the  Brah- 
manic  view  of  life  is  pessimistic  and  its  highest 
ideal  is  the  sage  who,  having  performed  his 
duties,  has  emancipated  himself  from  human 
relations  and  entered  into  the  spiritual  kingdom 
of  the  god  within  his  breast.  It  contains  no 
message  of  comfort  for  the  sufferer,  of  love,  of 
forgiveness,  of  humility.  Still  less  does  it  pro- 
claim an  ideal  of  social  justice.      It  leaves  us  with 


CHRIST,   THE  ONLT  LIGHT    347 

the  picture  of  the  emaciated  hermit  dreaming,  in 
the  trance  of  semi-starvation,  of  himself  as  one 
with  the  center  of  things, — a  God  self-created  by 
his  own  afflicted  brain."  (Hobhouse,  ^'Morals 
in  Evolution,"  Vol.  II,  p.  105.)  And  of  Bud- 
dhism Menzies  says: — 

This  religion  is  not  a  social  force,  it  aims  not  at  a 
kingdom  of  God  to  be  built  up  by  the  united  efforts  of 
multitudes  of  the  faithful,  but  only  at  saving  individual 
souls,  which  in  the  act  of  being  saved  are  removed 
beyond  all  activity  and  all  contact  with  the  world. 
Buddhism,  therefore,  is  not  a  power  which  makes 
actively  for  civilization.  It  is  a  powerful  agent  for  the 
taming  of  passion  and  the  prevention  of  vagrant  and 
lawless  desires  ;  it  tends,  therefore,  towards  peace.  But 
it  offers  no  stimulus  to  the  realization  of  the  riches 
which  are  given  to  man  in  his  own  nature ;  it  checks 
rather  than  fosters  enterprise ;  it  favors  a  full  con- 
formity to  rule  rather  than  the  free  cultivation  of 
various  gifts.  Its  ideal  is  to  empty  life  of  everything 
active  and  positive,  rather  than  to  concentrate  energy 
on  a  strong  purpose.  It  does  not  train  the  affections  to 
virtuous  and  harmonious  action,  but  denies  to  them  all 
action  and  consigns  them  to  extinction.  (Menzies, 
"History  of  Religion,"  p.  379.) 

The  more  rigorous  our  comparison  of  Chris- 
tianity in  its  moral  ideals  and  its  moral  power 
with  other  religions,  even  with  the  most  generous 
possible  interpretation  of  the  non-Christian  faiths, 
the  more  clearly  does  their  need  appear,  and  with 
it  the  sole  sufficiency  of  Christ  to  meet  it. 

Dr.  Barrows,  in  his  closing  lecture  in  India, 
said: — 

The  world  needs  the  Christian  religion.  India  needs 
Christ.      I  speak  with    some    confidence   on    this    point. 


348        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

In  the  providence  of  God,  I  have  given  time  during  the 
best  years  of  mj  life  to  the  examination  of  this  ques- 
tion, and  I  have  had  opportunities  such  as  few  other 
men  ever  had  of  seeing  and  knowing  the  best  side  of  the 
ethnic  religions.  I  count  as  my  friends  Parsees  and 
Hindus,  Buddhists  and  Confucianists,  Shintoists,  Jains 
and  Mohammedans.  I  know  what  they  say  about  them- 
selves. I  have  looked  at  their  religions  on  the  ideal 
side  as  well  as  the  practical,  and  I  know  this,  that  the 
very  best  which  is  in  them,  the  very  best  which  these 
well-meaning  men  have  shown  to  us,  is  often  a  reflex 
from  Christianity,  and  that  what  they  lack,  and  the  lack 
is  very  serious,  is  what  the  Christian  gospel  alone  can 
impart;  and  I  know  that  beneath  the  shining  examples 
of  the  elect  few  in  the  non-Christian  world  there  is  a 
vast  area  of  idolatry,  and  pollution,  and  unrest,  and 
superstition,  and  cruelty,  which  can  never  be  healed 
by  the  forces  which  are  found  in  the  non-Christian 
systems.  Recognizing  to  the  full  the  brighter  side  of 
so-called  heathenism,  rejoicing  that  the  light  has  been 
shining  everywhere,  and  that  foreshadowings  of  the 
evangelic  truths  are  discoverable  among  the  nations,  I 
yet  see  that  in  Christ  only  is  there  full  salvation  for  the 
individual  and  for  society.  (Barrows,  ' 'Christianity 
the  World  Religion,"  p.  158.) 

7.  The  social  uniqueness  of  Christianity  sets 
it  in  a  class  apart  from  the  other  religions.  Its 
ethics,  as  just  pointed  out,  are  socially  superior. 
The  superiority  of  Christianity  in  this  regard 
needs  separate  emphasis.  It  is  the  one  religion 
.of  brotherhood,  asserting  the  unity  of  humanity. 
Hinduism  denies  human  unity  by  its  caste,  Con- 
fucianism by  its  pride,  Mohammedanism  by  its 
bigotry.      Kuenen  disputes  the  common  idea  that 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLT  LIGHT     349 

Buddhism  repudiated   caste  and  taught  equality, 
and  he  quotes  the  opinion  of  Oldenberg: — 

We  can  understand  how  in  our  times  Buddha  should 
have  had  the  role  assigned  to  him  of  a  social  reformer 
who  broke  the  oppressive  chains  of  caste  and  won  a 
place  for  the  poor  and  humble  in  the  spiritual  kingdom 
which  he  founded.  But  if  anyone  would  really  sketch 
the  work  of  Buddha,  he  must,  for  truth's  sake,  dis- 
tinctly deny  that  the  glory  of  any  such  deed,  under 
whatever  form  it  may  be  conceived,  really  belongs  to 
him.      (Kuenen,  '^Hibbert  Lectures,"  1882,  p.  246  f . ) 

And  Christianity  is  the  one  religion  which  has   TKe  Place  of 
taught  the  equality  of  woman  with  man,  produced   t^e  Child  in 
the  unique  institution  of  the  Christian  home,  and   Christianity. 
set  the  child  as  a  matter   of  social   and  religious 
principle  in  the  first  place.      We  cannot  overstate 
the  significance  of  the  religious  test  afforded  in  a 
comparative  study  of  the  place  of  the  child  in  the 
world  religions.      Christianity  is  the  only  religion  | 
that    makes    anything    of     the    childhood    of    its  ' 
Founder.       The    other    religions    of     the    world 
either  have  nothing  to  say  about  the  childhood  of 
their  founders,  or  preserve   only  a  few  insignifi- 
cant   traditions.      And    Christianity    is   the    only 
religion  that  takes  any  particular  account  of  the 
children   themselves.      The    gospels    are    full    of 
stories   of  Jesus'  miracles   in  behalf  of  children,  \ 
and  of  his   love  and  tenderness  toward  children. 
The   other  religions   are   concerned  with   adults. 
Their  message   is  a  message  for   adults.      Chris- 
tianity is   the  only  religion  which   prescribes   the 
spirit  of  childhood  as  important.      Christianity, 


350        THE  LIGHT  OF  THE   WORLD 

indeed,  makes  it  essential.  No  one  can  enter  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  who  will  not  do  so  as  a  little 
child.  Tradition  says  that  Lao-tsze,  the  founder 
of  Taoism,  was  born  as  an  old  man,  and  all  the 
other  religions  demand  as  conditions  of  salvation 
what  is  inconsistent  with,  or  far  beyond  the  spirit 
of,  childhood. 

These  are  radical  distinctions.  How  radical 
they  are  is  seen  in  the  consequences  of  the  atti- 
tude of  the  different  religions  toward  child  char- 
acter and  child  life.  From  the  beginning 
Christianity  has  had  a  tender  solicitude  for  the 
child.  Schools  and  orphanages  and  homes  were 
its  immediate  products,  and  all  over  the  world 
to-day  the  first  anxiety  of  the  Christian  Church  is 
for  the  child.  By  loving  rites  the  child  is  recog- 
nized in  its  infancy  as  having  a  place  in  the 
Christian  institution,  and  its  nurture  and  care 
are  the  chief  concern  of  the  church.  "To  child- 
ren," as  Uhlhorn  says  in  "The  Conflict  of  Chris- 
tianity with  Heathenism,"  "the  gospel  first  gave 
their  rights.  They,  too,  in  antiquity  were  beyond 
the  pale  of  the  laws.  A  father  could  dispose  of 
his  children  at  will.  If  he  did  not  wish  to  rear 
them,  he  could  abandon  or  kill  them.  The  law 
of  the  Twelve  Tables  expressly  awarded  to  him 
this  right.  Plato  and  Aristotle  approved  of 
parents'  abandoning  weak  and  sickly  children 
whom  they  were  unable  to  support,  or  who  could 
not  be  of  use  to  the  state.  Whoever  picked  up 
a  child  who  had  been  deserted  could  dispose  of 
it   and   treat   it   as  a  slave.      The   father's  power 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL  T  LIGHT    351 

over  his  children  was  limitless;  life  and  death 
were  at  his  disposal.  Christianity,  on  the  con- 
trary, taught  parents  that  their  children  were  a 
gift  from  God,  a  pledge  entrusted  to  them,  for 
which  they  were  responsible  to  Him.  It  spoke 
not  merely  of  the  duties  of  children,  but  also  of 
the  duties  of  parents;  and  since  it  invested  these, 
as  representatives  of  God,  with  something  of  His 
majesty  and  honor,  it  appointed  to  them  the  lofty 
task  of  educating  their  baptized  o^ffspring  as  chil- 
dren of  God,  and  for  His  kingdom.  The  exposi- 
tion of  children  was  looked  upon  by  Christians 
as  plainly  unlawful, — it  was  regarded  and  treated 
as  murder.  And,  though  paternal  authority  was 
highly  esteemed,  there  could  no  longer  be  any 
claim  to  an  unconditional  right  over  children 
after  men  had  learned  to  look  upon  them  as  God's 
property. 

The  one  fact  of  polygamy  alone  is  enough  to  \ 
indicate  how  widely  different  the  place  of  chil- 
dren in  the  non-Christian  religions  must  be  from 
their  place  in  Christianity.  Polygamy  makes  a 
pure  and  loving  home  life  impossible,  and  it 
begets  an  atmosphere  in  which  right  education 
in  character  is  an  impossibility.  And  all  the 
non-Christian  religions  are  polygamous,  or,  by 
the  practice  of  concubinage,  practically  polyg- 
amous. 

Under  all  the  non-Christian  religions  the  girls  Heathenism's 
suffer.  The  preservation  of  the  male  line  is  the  Contempt  for 
great  essential,   and   often  polygamy   and   concu-    Girls. 


352       THE  LIGHT   OF  THE    WORLD 

binage  are  practiced  simply  to  secure  male  off- 
spring, the  woman  and  the  girl  being  of  little 
account  save  as  they  belong  to  the  process. 
*'One  of  the  deepest  convictions  in  the  mind  of 
the  Arab,"  says  Dr.  Jessup,  "is  that  any  man  is 
immeasurably  superior  to  any  woman, — that 
women  are  fit  only  to  be  despised.  The  rejoic- 
ing over  the  birth  of  a  son  is  matched  by  the 
grief  with  which  a  daughter  is  received  into  the 
world.  In  Kesrawan,  a  district  of  Mount  Lebanon 
near  Beyrout,  the  Ar?b  women  have  a  proverb, 
^The  threshold  weeps  forty  days  when  a  girl  is 
born.'  "  In  China  daughters  are  not  counted.  If 
a  man  is  asked  how  many  children  he  has,  he 
will  reply  with  the  number  of  his  sons.  A 
pagan  Chinese  woman,  speaking  upon  the  subject 
of  daughters,  remarked,  "A  daughter  is  a  trouble- 
some and  expensive  thing  anyway.  Not  only 
has  she  to  be  fed  but  there  is  all  the  trouble  of 
binding  her  feet,  and  of  getting  her  betrothed, 
and  of  making  up  her  wedding  garments,  and 
even  after  she  is  married  off  she  must  have  pres- 
ents made  to  her  when  she  has  children.  Really, 
it  is  no  wonder  that  so  many  baby  girls  have  been 
slain  at  their  birth."  "A  boy,"  declares  a 
common  Chinese  saying,  "is  worth  ten  times 
as  much  as  a  girl."  "If  a  girl  does  no  harm," 
declares  another,  "it  is  enough;  you  cannot 
expect  her  to  be  either  useful  or  good."  The 
Chinese  contempt  for  girls  rests  upon  a  religious 
basis.      The   great  religious  conception  in  China 


CHRIST,  THE  ONL  T  LIGHT     853 

is  the  idea  of  ancestral  worship.  The  happiness 
of  the  soul  in  the  world  beyond  depends  upon 
the  maintenance  of  reverence  and  care  for  the 
spirits  by  living  male  descendants.  Daughters 
are  useless  to  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  In  India 
"the  position  of  women  is  shown  to  be  inferior 
to  that  of  men  from  the  hour  of  their  birth.  As 
soon  as  a  boy  is  born  a  horn  made  of  a  shell  is 
blown,  to  tell  the  neighbors  the  good  news,  but 
when  a  daughter  is  born  there  is  no  sound  of 
rejoicing.  When  a  son  is  born,  friends  come  to 
congratulate  the  father,  but  when  he  has  a  little 
girl,  if  friends  come  at  all,  it  is  to  show  their 
sympathy  with  the  family.  For  a  son  religious 
ceremonies  are  performed.  Mothers  with  sons 
are  regarded  as  the  favorites  of  the  gods,  but 
mothers  with  daughters  only  are  thought  to  be 
accursed.  And  the  Hindu  religion  permits  a 
man  to  marry  a  second  wife,  if  within  seven 
years  of  marriage  he  has  no  son,  although  he 
may  have  daughters." 

It  is  this   contempt  for  girls   that    has   led    to ,  infanticide 
infanticide.      ''Of  the  prevalence   of   infanticide! 
in  China,"  says  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  "there  is' 
unhappily  no  room   for   doubt.      The  question  is 
set  at  rest  by  the  testimony  of  the  people  them- 
selves.      Among    their    moral    tracts    dissuading 
from  vice  and  crime  a  conspicuous  place  is  filled 
by   a   class    called   'Dissuasives    from    Drowning 
Daughters.'      Official    proclamations    may    often 
be  seen  posted  on  gates  and  walls  forbidding  the 


354      THE   LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

practice."  Dr.  Abeel  gave  it  as  his  verdict, 
after  repeated  investigation  in  the  vicinity  of 
Amoy,  that  the  "number  destroyed  varies  exceed- 
ingly in  different  places,  the  extremes  extending 
from  seventy  and  eighty  per  cent  to  ten  per  cent, 
and  the  average  proportion  destroyed  in  all  these 
places  amounting  to  nearly  four-tenths,  or  exactly 
thirty-nine  per  cent.  In  seventeen  of  forty  towns 
and  villages  [visited]  my  informants  declare  that 
one-half  or  more  are  deprived  of  existence  at 
birth."  Of  India  it  is  declared  by  sober  author- 
ities that  the  murder  of  female  children,  whether 
by  the  direct  employment  of  homicidal  means  or 
by  the  more  inhuman  and  not  less  certain  meas- 
ures of  exposure  to  privation  and  neglect,  has  for 
ages  been  the  chief  and  most  characteristic  crime 
of  six-sevenths  of  the  inhabitants  of  British  India. 
In  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  infanticide  by  the 
British  Government,  there  have  been  officially 
reported  in  fifteen  years  12,542  cases  of  infanti- 
cide, and  ''this  number,"  Dr.  Dennis  says, 
''represents  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  total." 
In  Africa  the  birth  of  twin  children  among 
almost  all  the  races  is  regarded  with  superstitious 
horror.  "The  birth  of  twins,"  says  Mrs.  Hill 
of  Western  Equatorial  Africa,  "is  considered  a 
great  curse,  and  the  woman  that  has  twiijs  is  dis- 
graced for  life  afterwards,  and  she  is  compelled 
to  throw  the  twins  into  the  wood,  where  they  are 
left  to  die.  In  a  town  five  miles  distant  from 
where   we   were  there   are   five   hundred    infants 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT         355 

annually  sacrificed;  they  are  murdered  by  hun- 
dreds, and  left  to  die  in  the  way  which  I  have 
stated." 

And  even  when  children  are  loved  and  cared 
for  they  are  exposed  under  the  non-Christian 
faiths  to  far  greater  perils  of  disease  and  want 
than  under  Christianity.  Christianity  produces 
plenty.  It  leads  to  cleanliness  and  earnest 
thought  about  others,  so  that  children  receive 
under  Christianity  a  care  entirely  unknown  under 
the  non-Christian  religions.  Thus  a  woman 
missionary  from  Korea  writes:  ''Kim  Si  has  a 
son,  rather  a  'ne'er  do  weel'  I'm  afraid,  as  the 
sons  of  rich  and  indulgent  mothers  may  easily 
become  in  other  places  than  Korea.  But  he  has 
a  girl  wife  of  seventeen,  and  now  they  have  a 
fine  baby  boy  four  months  old.  She  is  a  dear 
little  mother,  and  idolizes  her  baby,  but,  like 
all  Korean  mothers,  she  does  fearful  and  wonder- 
ful things  to  him.  But  she  and  Kim  Si  have 
both  been  among  the  missionaries  enough  to 
realize  that  there  are  things  to  do  for  babies  that 
they  never  have  dreamed  of,  wonderful  garments 
of  which  they  know  neither  the  form  nor  the 
name,  and  ways  by  which  the  baby  can  have  a 
bath  even  in  winter  and  not  meet  its  death.  She 
came  into  my  room  one  evening,  and  as  I  sat  on 
my  cot  she  crouched  at  my  feet,  and  with  her 
hands  clasped  in  my  lap,  her  soft  eyes  looking 
into  mine  with  the  most  wistful  longing,  she 
asked  me  question  after  question  as  to  how  she 


856      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

might  best  care  for  her  baby,  and  train  him  to  be^ 
a  useful  man.  Poor  little  woman!  Her  heart 
was  full  of  eager  desire  to  do  the  very  best  for 
her  little  one.  She  knew  that  there  were  things 
that  might  be  done  to  make  him  well  and  happy 
and  good,  but  as  to  what  and  how  she  knew 
nothing  at  all.  You  mothers  at  home  who  sur- 
round your  babies  with  every  good  thing  that 
love  and  intelligent  care  can  provide,  don't  forget 
to  offer  a  prayer  sometimes  for  these  mothers  in 
Korea  who  only  know  that  they  have  been  lead- 
ing their  children  in  the  darkness,  and  are  now 
eagerly  trying  to  follow  each  ray  of  light.  After 
a  talk  on  the  care  of  children  given  by  one  of  our 
ladies  here  in  a  city  class  one  evening,  a  sweet, 
sad-faced  woman  came  to  me,  and  said,  'I  have 
lost  three  babies  all  because  I  did  not  know  these 
things  I  have  heard  to-night,  but  when  my  new 
little  one  comes  I  believe  I  can  keep  it.'  And  I 
have  no  doubt  it  was  literally  true." 

The  curse  of  child  marriage  in  India  is 
enjoined  by  the  Hindu  religion.  The  census  of 
1891  in  India  gives  the  following  returns  of  early 
marriage: — 

Under  4  j'ears  of  age,  males      .  .  6,945 

females  .  258,760 

From  5  to  9  years,  males             .  .  690,803 

''           ''           ''       females        .  .  2,201,404 

*'      10  to  14  years,  males         .  .  2,342,433 

''       females     .  .  6,016,759 

Mr.  Justice  Moothsowami  Tyer  recently  said, 
^'According  to  custom  now  obtaining,  a  Brahman 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT         357 

girl  is  bound  to  marry,  for  fear  of  social  degrada- 
tion, before  she  attains  maturity.  Marriage  is  of 
the  nature  of  a  sacrament  which  no  Brahman  is 
at  liberty  to  neglect  without  forfeiting  his  caste." 
He  shows  that  the  Smritis,  or  Things  heard  from 
God,  "declare  it  to  be  a  duty  of  a  father  to 
bestow  his  daughter  in  marriage  before  she  attains 
her  maturity."  '^'A  father  should  try  his  best  to 
perform  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  from  the 
fourth  year  of  her  age  upward,  till  before  the 
completion  of  the  tenth  year." 

And  it  will  not  do  for  the  apologists  for  Hin- 
duism to  say  that  child  marriages  are  only 
betrothals  and  not  real  marriages.  Often  they 
are  only  betrothals,  but  in  innumerable  cases 
little  girls  are  actually  married,  with  the  inevita- 
ble consequence  of  untold  suffering  and  pain. 
Facts  could  be  cited  from  medical  testimony. 
And  the  curse  of  child  marriage  has  associated 
with  it  the  curse  of  child  widowhood.  In  1891 
there  were  14,000  widows  under  five  years  of 
age.  Nearly  every  fifth  woman  in  India  is  a 
widow,  held  in  contempt  as  unclean  and  an 
object  of  suspicion  as  hated  by  the  gods. 

In  Buddhist  lands,  such  as  Japan  and  Siam, 
the  child's  lot  is  happier  than  under  the  other 
non-Christian  religions.  A  boy  is  more  wel- 
come than  a  girl,  but  the  girl  is  welcomed  and 
counted  as  she  may  not  be  in  India  and  China. 
But  however  just  and  kind  her  treatment  here, 
no  girl  or  woman,  as  such,  can  be  saved  or  attain 


358       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 


Nirvana  at  last.  She  must  be  born  in  the  wheel 
of  transmigration  as  a  man.  The  lot  of  the  child 
is  not  unhappy,  however,  in  these  lands,  but  it 
is  bound  by  the  common  superstitions,  and  from 
the  earliest  years  goes  to  worship  the  idols  and  to 
propitiate  the  spirits. 

But  whether  the  child  is  welcomed  and  cared 
for  by  parental  love  or  not — and  wherever  in  the 
world  there  are  mother  hearts  there  will  surely  be 
mother's  love — the  fact  remains  that  none  of  the 
religions  of  the  world,  except  Christianity,  takes 
any  special  account  of  the  child,  or  have  any 
word  for  him  or  about  him.  Only  Christ  took  a 
little  child  and  set  him  in  the  midst.  Only  Christ 
was  a  little  child,  and  this  has  made  all  the 
difference  in  the  world  to  children. 

Aye,  sure  the  babe  is  in  his  cradle  blest 
Since  God  himself  a  baby  deigned  to  be, 

And  slept  upon  a  mortal  mother's  breast, 
And  bathed  in  baby  tears  his  deity. 

8.  The  Bible  is  unique  among  the  sacred  books 
of  the  world.  The  fourth  of  Dr.  Barrows'  Haskell 
Lectures  in  India  was  on  ''The  Universal  Book." 
In  a  farewell  address  in  New  York  he  summarized 
his  whole  line  of  argument,  and  two  glowing 
paragraphs  will  suffice  to  indicate  both  his  own 
enthusiastic  faith  and  the  ground  for  it: — 

How  narrow  and  poor,  in  comparison,  has  been  the 
ministry  of  other  sacred  books!  How  limited  to 
national  areas !  Much  of  the  best  modern  poetry, 
where  the  beauty  depends  so  much  on  the  artistic 
expression,  cannot  be  successfully  put  into  most  other 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT         359 

tongues,  but  the  poetry  of  the  Psalter,  for  example,  is 
primarily  in  the  thought,  and  thought  can  go  every- 
where. Expert  scholars  inform  us  that  the  bibles  of 
other  peoples,  when  translated  into  the  English,  are  as 
variant  from  the  original  form  and  melody  as  can  well 
be  imagined.  The  Mohammedan  deems  it  a  sacrilege 
for  the  Koran  to  talk  in  infidel  tongues;  the  very  words 
which  the  Prophet  dictated  and  which  his  scribes  wrote 
down  on  palm  leaves  and  shoulder  blades,  must  be 
learned  in  the  Arabic  and  repeated  in  the  original.  We 
are  convinced  that  there  is  no  life-giving  power  in  such 
mummeries.  An  intelligent  world  is  not  to  be  put  to 
confusion  by  superstitions.  But  the  Bible,  entering  as 
life  and  truth,  justifies  its  claims  by  Avhat  it  has  wrought 
for  the  savage  and  civilized  races  of  men.  It  has  lifted 
the  mind  and  transformed  the  life,  enlarged  the  horizon, 
and  given  to  human  darkness  the  bright  atmosphere  of 
celestial  worlds.  To  the  ancient  Greek,  the  knowledge 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New  brought  fresh  con- 
stellations to  his  sensitive  and  ever-expanding  intelli- 
gence ;  and,  surveying  the  effects  w'hich  the  Bible  has 
wrought  on  some  modern  peoples  like  Japan,  ambitious 
to  get  out  of  the  primitive  stages  of  civilization,  one 
writer,  using  a  thoroughly  modern  metaphor,  tells  us 
that  "the  translation  of  the  Bible  is  like  building  a  rail- 
road through  the  national  intellect." 

A  book  which  contains  the  Gospel  of  John,  which 
Schaff  called  "the  most  important  literary  production 
ever  written  by  man,"  and  whose  third  chapter  is  better 
fitted  to  improve  the  morals  and  lift  the  hopes  of  man- 
kind than  many  a  hundredweight  of  Brahmanic  and 
Buddhistic  literature  ;  a  book  which  has  given  to  man- 
kind all  the  pure  and  strong  and  vigorous  monotheism 
now  prevailing  in  our  race,  among  nations  as  diverse  as 
those  who  dwell  in  Scotland  and  those  who  dwell  in 
Arabia;  a  book  whose  prolonged  history  was  a  manifest 
prophecy  of  the  Messiah,  culminating  in  the  matchless 


360       THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

person  and  teachings  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  through 
whose  record  there  runs,  bj  the  side  of  human  sin,  the 
current  of  a  divine  redemption;  a  book  which  opens 
with  creation's  story,  written  long  before  the  birth  of 
science  and  conformed  to  that  theory  of  development 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex,  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher,  which  science  now  wears  as  its  most  lustrous 
crown;  a  book  which  deals  with  those  stories  of  the 
earth's  origin  and  of  the  earth's  destruction  by  a  deluge 
in  such  a  way  as  to  demonstrate  its  moral  superiority 
above  the  other  traditions  and  accounts  which  have 
been  left  us;  a  book  which  has  furnished  in  its  psalms, 
written  more  than  twenty-five  hundred  years  ago,  the 
one  devotional  volume  most  acceptable  to  the  enlight- 
ened nations  of  to-day, — those  psalms  on  which  John 
Bright  declared  he  would  be  content  to  stake  the  ques- 
tion whether  there  is  or  there  is  not  a  Divine  revela- 
tion;  a  book  which  has  furnished  mankind  the  authority 
for  that  Sabbath  of  rest,  without  which  civilization 
would  rapidly  sink  into  physical  decay  and  moral  bar- 
barism ;  a  book  which,  through  its  claiming  insistence 
on  righteousness,  its  doctrine  of  retribution,  and  its 
disclosure  of  the  Christ,  opposes  the  degrading  and 
downward  tendencies  of  sin,  and  is  lifting  great  portions 
of  our  race  into  a  better  manhood,  and  which  carries  on 
the  forefront  of  its  gospel  the  priceless  truth  of  immor- 
tality, making  our  earth  in  spite  of  its  sorrows  and 
transgressions  the  suburb  and  gateway  of  celestial  life, 
shines  so  pre-eminently  that  it  is  only  with  an  extreme 
of  courtesy  that  we  can  bring  it  in  comparison  with 
other  sacred  writings.  (''Homiletic  Review,"  May, 
1896,  p.  399.) 

The  Only  9.    Christianity   is  worthy  to  become    the   one 

Rehgion  That  religion  of  the  world,  because  it  is  the  only  reli- 
gion that  can  be  made  the  world's  religion ;  the 
only  religion   which   belongs   to   every  race,  but 


Life 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT         861 

exclusively  to  none, — which  has  no  narrowing 
ethnic  limitations,  which  is  adaptive  to  all  the 
life  of  humanity  and  capable  of  inspiring-  and 
guiding  all  the  progress  of  mankind.  In  a  true 
sense,  as  Richard  Rothe  said,  ""Christianity  is 
the  most  mutable  of  all  things.  This  is  its 
glory."  It  quickens  men  to  ceaseless  effort  and 
growth,  and  as  they  change  and  expand  and 
advance  Christianity  seems  to  alter  with  them. 
What  it  is  doing  is  simply  to  give  men  a  larger 
experience  of  its  own  transforming  power. 

In  every  land  where  Christianity  prevails,  an  influence 
connected  with  religion  is  at  work,  which  makes  for 
the  emancipation  and  elevation  of  the  human  person, 
and  for  the  awakening  of  the  manifold  energies  of 
human  nature.  This,  as  we  saw,  is  the  immediate  and 
native  tendency  of  the  religion  of  Jesus;  it  opens  the 
prison  doors  to  them  that  are  bound  ;  it  communicates 
by  its  inner  encouragement  an  energy  which  makes  the 
infirm  forget  their  weaknesses ;  it  fills  the  heart  with 
hope  and  opens  up  new  views  of  what  man  can  do  and 
can  become.  It  is  this  that  makes  it  the  one  truly 
universal  religion.  Islam,  it  is  true,  has  also  proved  its 
power  to  live  in  many  lands,  and  Buddhism  has  spread 
over  half  of  Asia.  But  Buddhism  is  not  a  full  religion, — 
it  does  not  tend  to  action  but  to  passivity,  and  affords 
no  help  to  progress.  Islam,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
yoke  rather  than  an  inspiration;  it  is  inwardly  hostile 
to  freedom,  and  is  incapable  of  aiding  in  higher  moral 
development.  Christianity  has  a  message  to  which  men 
become  always  rhore  willing  to  respond  as  they  rise  in 
the  scale  of  civilization;  it  has  proved  its  power  to 
enter  into  the  lives  of  various  nations,  and  to  adapt 
itself  to  their  circumstances  and  guide  their  aspirations 
without   humiliatincr  them.     A  religion  which  identifies 


362       THE   LIGHT   OF   THE    WORLD 

itself,  as  Christianity  does,  with  the  cause  of  freedom 
in  every  land,  and  tends  to  unite  all  men  in  one  great 
brotherhood  under  the  loving  God  who  is  the  Father 
of  all  alike,  is  surely  the  desire  of  all  nations,  and  is 
destined  to  be  the  faith  of  all  mankind.  (Menzies,  ''The 
History  of  Religion,"  p.  423.) 

And  Christianity  alone  possesses  this  trans- 
forming and  adaptive  power  because  it  alone  is 
life.  We  have  been  comparing  it  as  Christianity 
and  as  a  religion  with  the  non-Christian  religions, 
but  as  a  matter  of  fact  these  terms  conceal  the 
very  issue.  We  cannot  compare  things  that  are 
incommensurable,  and  the  life  in  Christ  is  not  a 
system.  The  term  Christianity  does  not  occur  in 
the  New  Testament.  Jesus  never  uses  the  word 
religion.  It  occurs  in  the  New  Testament  only 
half  a  dozen  times.  Christianity  is  a  term  which 
stands  in  the  same  class  with  Judaism,  Buddhism, 
Hinduism,  but  Jesus  did  not  mean  to  add  a  new 
and  rival  religious  system.  He  did  not  say,  '^I 
am  come  that  they  might  have  Christianity." 
John  did  not  say,  "He  that  hath  Christianity  hath 
life."  Paul  did  not  say,  "Believe  in  Christianity 
and  thou  shalt  be  saved."  The  living  Christ  and 
life  in  Christ  filled  the  thought  of  the  disciples, 
and  the  great  word  of  Christ  Himself  was  life. 
This  is  the  fundamental,  radical  and  utterly 
divisive  distinction.  "Christianity  is  more  and 
higher  than  Heathenism,"  says  Uchimura  in  his 
"Diary."  "It  is  Heathenism  plus  Life.  By  it 
alone  the  law-keeping  becomes  a  possibility.  It 
is  the   Spirit   of    the    Law.      It   of    all    religions 


CHRIST,   THE   ONLY  LIGHT         868 

works  from  inside.  It  is  what  Heathenism  has 
been  searching  and  groping  after  with  much 
weeping.  It  not  only  shows  us  the  good,  but  it 
makes  us  good,  by  taking  us  right  at  once  to  the 
Eternal  Goodness  Himself.  It  provides  us  not 
only  with  the  Way,  but  with  the  Life  as  well; 
with  the  Rail  as  well  as  with  the  Engine.  I  am 
yet  to  be  taught  by  'Comparative  Religion'  of 
some  other  religion  that  does  likewise.  "  ("Diary 
of  a  Japanese  Convert,"  p.  179.) 

10.  Christianity  is  the  final  and  absolute  reli-  Cliristiamty 
gion,  because  it  contains  all  the  good  and  truth  tke  one  Ful- 
that  can  be  found  in  any  other  religion,  and  "llment  and 
presents   it  to  men   in   its   divine   fullness,  while      °™^  ^^ 

■^  ^     ^  _  rlumanity. 

other  religions  have  none  but  partial  good;  be- 
cause it  is  free  from  the  evils  which  are  found  in 
all  other  religions,  and  because  it  alone  can  satisfy 
all  the  needs  of  the  human  heart  and  of  the  human 
race.  We  are  glad  to  find  any  outreach  after 
truth  in  other  religions  which  shows  that  the 
hearts  of  those  who  hold  it  are  made  for  that  truth 
and  capable  of  receiving  it  in  its  perfect  form  in 
Christianity.  ''The  glory  of  Christianity,"  said 
Professor  Jowett,  'Ms  not  to  be  as  unlike  other 
religions  as  possible,  but  to  be  their  perfection 
and  fulfillment."  That  is  true  of  their  good,  but 
Christianity  does  glory  in  its  freedom  from  all 
their  falsehood  and  error.  Christianity  is  final, 
because  there  is  no  good  beyond  it  and  no  evil  in 
it,  and  because  it  cleanses  and  crowns  all  the  life 
and  thought  of  man.      It  is  the  end   of   all  men's 


364      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

quest.  ''I  maintain,"  says  Tide,  "that  the 
appearance  of  Christianity  inaugurated  an  en- 
tirely new  epoch  in  the  development  of  religion; 
that  all  the  streams  of  the  religious  life  of  man, 
once  separate,  unite  in  it;  and  that  religious 
development  will  henceforth  consist  in  an  ever 
higher  realization  of  the  principles  of  that  reli- 
gion." (Tiele,  "Elements  of  the  Science  of 
Religion,"  First  Series,  p.  212.)  And  Chris- 
tianity is  absolute  as  well  ^s  final;  that  is,  it  fills 
the  field.  There  can  be  nothing  higher  or  better. 
There  can  be  nothing  else  in  the  same  class. 
Bishop  Westcott  said:— 

A  perfect  religion — a  religion  which  offers  a  complete 
satisfaction  to  the  religious  wants  of  man — must  (to 
repeat  briefly  what  has  been  said)  be  able  to  meet  the 
religious  wants  of  the  individual,  the  society,  the  race, 
in  the  complete  course  of  their  development  and  in  the 
manifold  intensity  of  each  separate  human  faculty. 

This  being  so,  I  contend  that  the  faith  in  Christ, 
born,  crucified,  risen,  ascended,  forms  the  basis  of  this 
perfect  religion;  that  it  is  able,  in  virtue  of  its  essential 
character,  to  bring  peace  in  view  of  the  problems  of 
life  under  every  variety  of  circumstance  and  character — 
to  illuminate,  to  develop,"  and  to  inspire  every  human 
faculty.  My  contention  rests  upon  the  recognition  of 
the  two  marks  by  which  Christianity  is  distinguished 
from  every  other  religion.  It  is 'absolute  and  it  is 
•'historical. 

On  the  one  side,  Christianity  is  not  confined  by  any 
limits  of  place,  or  time,  or  faculty,  or  object.  It 
reaches  to  the  whole  sum  of  being  and  to  the  whole  of 
each  separate  existence.  On  the  other  side,  it  offers  its 
revelation  in  facts  which  are  an  actual   part   of  human 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT         365 

experience,  so  that  the  peculiar  teaching  which  it  brings 
as  to  the  nature  and  relations  of  God  and  man  and  the 
world  is  simply  the  interpretation  of  events  in  the  life 
of  men  and  in  the  life  of  One  who  was  truly  Man.  It 
is  not  a  theory,  a  splendid  guess,  but  a  proclamation  of 
facts. 

These,  I  repeat,  are  its  original,  its  unalterable 
claims.  Christianity  is  absolute.  It  claims,  as  it  was 
set  forth  by  the  Apostles,  though  the  grandeur  of  the 
claim  was  soon  obscured,  to  reach  all  men,  all  time,  all 
creation;  it  claims  to  effect  the  perfection  no  less  than 
the  redemption  of  finite  being;  it  claims  to  bring  a  per- 
fect unity  of  humanity  without  destroying  the  person- 
ality of  any  one  man;  it  claims  to  deal  with  all  that  is 
external  as  well  as  with  all  that  is  internal,  with  matter 
as  well  as  with  spirit,  with  the  physical  universe  as  well 
as  with  the  moral  universe;  it  claims  to  realize  a 
re-creation  co-extensive  with  creation ;  it  claims  to 
present  Him  who  was  the  Maker  of  the  world,  as  the 
Heir  of  all  things;  it  claims  to  complete  the  cycle  of 
existence,  and  show  how  all  things  come  from  God  and 
go  to  God.  (Westcott,  '' Religious  Thought  in  the 
West,"  p.  345  f.) 

As  absolute,  it  must  displace  all  that  is  partial  Tte  FaitK 
or  false.  It  must  conquer  the  world.  The  that  is  to 
people  who  have  it  must  be  a  missionary  people.    ^^°^^"j^ 

This  is  the  solemn  duty  w^ith  which  we  are 
charged  by  our  personal  experience  of  the  treasure 
that  is  in  Christ,  and  this  is  the  solemn  duty  with 
which  any  true  comparison  of  Christianity  with 
the  world  religions  confronts  us.  Alike  from  the 
look  within  and  from  the  look  without  we  arise 
with  a  clear  understanding  of  the  missionary 
character  of  the  religion  that  bears  the  name  of 


World. 


366      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Christ.  The  attitude  of  that  religion  is  '^notone 
of  compromise,  but  one  of  conflict  and  of  con- 
quest. It  proposes  to  displace  the  other  religions. 
The  claim  of  Jeremiah  is  the  claim  of  Chris- 
tianity,— 'The  gods  that  have  not  made  the 
heavens  and  the  earth,  they  shall  perish  from  the 
earth  and  from  under  the  heavens.'  The  sur- 
vival of  the  Creator,  joyfully  foreseen,  is  the 
ground  of  its  confidence  and  its  endeavor. 
Christianity  thus  undertakes  a  long  and  laborious 
campaign,  in  which  it  must  experience  various 
fortunes  and  learn  patience  from  trials  and  delays; 
but  the  true  state  of  the  case  must  not  be  for- 
gotten, narAely,  that  Christianity  sets  out  for 
victory.  The  intention  to  conquer  is  character- 
istic of  the  gospel.  This  was  the  aim  of  its 
youth  when  it  went  forth  among  the  religions 
that  then  surrounded  it,  and  with  this  aim  it  must 
enter  any  field  in  which  old  religions  are  encum- 
bering the  religious  nature  of  man.  It  cannot 
conquer  except  in  love,  but  in  love  it  intends  to 
conquer.  It  means  to  fill  the  world. "  It  must 
do  so  in  order  that  the  Nations  may  have  their 
Desire  and  the  World  its  Light. 

BIBLE   READING 

Third  Chapter  of  Ephesians. 

QUESTIONS 

Is    it   desirable  or  necessary  to  compare    Christianity 
with  other  religions? 


CHRIST,  THE  ONLY  LIGHT         867 

On  what  terms  is  the  compai-ison  to  be  made?  Are 
these  terms  easy  or  possible? 

Are  resemblances  or  differences  to  be  chiefly  empha- 
sized in  the  comparison  of  religions? 

What  different  views  are  taken  of  the  relation  of 
Christianity  to  other  religions? 

Are  the  non-Christian  religions  efforts  of  God  to 
reach  men  or  efforts  of  men  to  reach  God?  Is  the  evil 
in  these  religions  from  God? 

On  what  grounds  can  Christianity  be  declared  to  be 
the  final  and  absolute  religion? 

Describe  the  superiority  of  the  Christian  conception 
of  God. 

Compare  the  Christian  and  non-Christian  ideas  of 
sin  and  salvation. 

Describe  the  peculiar  place  of  the  historical  element 
in    Christianity  and    also    its   unique    spirit  of    life  and 
progress. 
♦State  the  elements  of  Christianity's  ethical  superiority. 

Compare  the  influence  of  the  various  religions  upon 
child  life. 

What  are  the  grounds  for  claiming  a  unique  place  for 
the  Bible? 

What  is  the  fundamental  difference  between  Chris- 
tianity and  all  other  religions? 

SELECTED  REFERENCE  BOOKS 

Jevons,   "Introduction    to    the    Study    of    Comparative 

Religion,"  Macmillan,  1908. 
Kellogg,    "A    Handbook    of    Comparative    Religion," 

Westminster  Press,  1899. 
Ellinwood,     "Oriental     Religions     and     Christianity," 

Scribner,  1892. 
Grant,  "The  Religions  of  the  World,"  Revell,  1898. 
Menzies,  "History  of  Religion,"  Scribner,  1895. 
Kuenen,  "Hibbert  Lectures,"  Scribner,  1882. 


aeS      THE  LIGHT  OF  THE    WORLD 

Tiele,  ''Elements  of  the  Science  of  Religion,"  Scribner, 

1897-1899. 
Muller,  ''The  Science  of  Religion,"  Scribner,  1887. 
Muller,  "Hibbert    Lectures,"  Longmans,  Green  &  Co., 

1878. 
Barrows,  "The  Christian  Conquest  of  Asia,"  Scribner, 

.     1899. 
Barrows,    "Christianity,    the    World    Religion,"  A.   C. 

McClurg  &  Co.,  1897. 
Warneck,    "Modern     Missions    and     Culture,"    W.     B. 

Mershon,  1888. 
Hall,  "The    Universal    Elements  of  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion," Re  veil,  1905. 
Tenney,    "Contrasts    in    Social    Progress,"    Longmans, 

Green  &  Co.,  1907. 
Knox,   "The  Direct    and    Fundamental    Proofs    of    the 

Christian  Religion,"  Scribner,  1903. 
Dennis,    "Christian    Missions    and    Social    Progress," 

Revell,  1897. 


INDEX 


Abbas  Effendi,  215. 

Abeel,  345. 

Abhedananda,  306,  308. 

Abu  Bakr,  185  f,  192,  211. 

Abul  Kasim,  213. 

Akbah,  212. 

Al  Berkevi.  204,  206. 

Al-Ghazali,  182,  343. 

AH,  212. 

Alma,   189. 

Ameer  AH,  Syed,  192,  197, 
223. 

Amid'a,  115,  261. 

Andrews,  C.  F.,  viii. 

Animism,  123;  the  primitive 
reHgion  of  China,  126  ff; 
the  reHgion  of  primitive 
races,  128 ;  a  religion  of 
fear,  129  f ;  and  of  spirit- 
ual poverty,  131  f. 

Arnold,  Sir  Edwin,  63  f,  78. 

Arja  Samaj,  35  ff,  333. 

Ashvagosha,    100. 

Asoka,  74. 

Ajesha,  187. 

Bab,  214. 

Baroda,  Gaekwar  of,43f,45f. 

Barrows,  J.  H.,  320,  347, 
358  ff. 

Barton,  J.  L.,  228. 

Beha,  214  ff. 

Besant,  Mrs.  Annie,  18  f,  21. 

Bhagavad-gita  8,  11  f,  14,  51. 

Bloomfield,  Bishop,  311. 

Brahmic  Covenant,  30  f. 

Brahmo  Sabha,  29. 

Brahmo  Samaj,  30  ff. 

Brenton,  128. 

Browne,  "A  Year  Among 
the  Persians,"  182. 

Buddhism,  resemblance  to 
Christianity,  63 ;  wide  ac- 
ceptance, 63,  f ;  is  it  a  re- 
ligion.? 65  ff;  origin  of, 
67  f;  relation  to  Hindu- 
ism, 68  f ;  founder,  69  ff; 
spread  of,  73  ff;  sacred 
books,  75  f;  doctrine  of, 
77  f ;  atheism  of,  79  f;  no 
soul  in,  80  f;  ethics  of, 
86  f;  caste  in,  87  f;  ten 
commandments,  88  f ;  sins 


and  duties,  89  f ;  its  ethics 
unsocial,  93  f;  weak- 
nesses, 94  f ;  development 
and  division,  96  ff;  in 
China,  101  f ;  in  Japan,  103 
ff;  contrasts  with  Chris- 
tianity, 109  f;  contacts 
with  Christianity,  114  f. 
Buddhist  Catechism,  79  f, 
81  f,  84  f,  110. 

Caldwell,  Bishop,  on  the 
character  of  Indian  peo- 
ple, 5 ;  on  the  Bhagavad- 
gita,  13 ;  on  popular 
Hinduism,  41  f. 

Cameron,  129. 

Caste,  43  ff,  87  f. 

Castelar,  325. 

Chaitanya,  26. 

Chamberlain,   Jacob,   7. 

Chang  Chih  Tung,  172. 

China  Missions  Emergency 
Committee,  169. 

Chinese  people,  primitive 
religion  of,  126,  134;  re- 
ligiousness of,  124  f. 

Chinese  sects,  162. 

Chao,  162  f. 

Christianity,  influence  on 
Hinduism,  38  ff ;  contrasts 
with  Hinduism,  52  ff; 
contacts  with  Hinduism, 
54  ff;  contrasts  with  Bud- 
dhism, 109  f;  contacts 
with  Buddhism,  113  f;  a 
message  of  joy  to  Ani- 
mistic people,  133;  con- 
trasts with  Confucianism, 
166-169;  contacts  with 
Confucianism,  171- 
174;  contrasts  with  Mo- 
hammedanism, 2  2  9-233; 
contacts  with  Mohamme- 
danism, 233-237;  compar- 
ison with  other  religions, 
299-313;  differences  fun- 
damental, 313  ff ;  the  final 
and  absolute  religion, 
332-366. 

Clark,  H.  Marty n,  274  f. 

Clarke,  William  Newton, 
335,  366. 


370 


INDEX 


Comparative  religion,  ne- 
cessity of  study  of,  299. 

Confucianism,  102;  agnosti- 
cism of,  123;  founder,  135 
ff;  the  Classics,  145  ff, 
150  ff;  state  worship,  147; 
filial  piety,  148;  its  char- 
acter essentially  political, 
148  f;  defects  of,  163  ff; 
contrasts  with  Christian- 
ity, 166-170 ;  inferiority  to 
Christianity,  169 ;  contacts 
with  Christianity,  171-174. 

Confucius,  life  of,  135  ff; 
character,  139  f;  his  be- 
lief in  heaven,  143  f ;  in- 
fluence, 141  f. 

Copleston,   112. 

Cornaby,  166. 

Curzon,  Lord,  318. 

Dahlke,  Paul,  93  f. 

"Daily  Hindu,"  21. 

Dante,  180. 

Datta,  Dr.,  19. 

Debenrenath  Tagoi-e,  30. 

DeGroot,  126  ff. 

Dennis,  J.  S.,  354. 

Dhammapada,  340. 

Dilger,  67. 

Douglas,  159,  167. 

Ebina,  247,  252,  256,  262, 
267,  277,  285,  289,  293. 

Edinburgh  Conference,  Re- 
port of  Commission  IV, 
41,  55  ff,  116  f,  235  f,  330f. 

Eitel,  on  Buddhism,  74  f, 
77,  85  f,  112  f,  114. 

Ellinwood,  F.  F.,  311. 

"Epiphany,"  49,  321. 

Faber,  Ernst,  124,   143,   145, 

149,  164  f,  171. 
Fairbairn,   124,  323. 
Farquhar,  13,  57. 
Farzi,  207. 
Flint,  47,  303  f. 
Foster,  Arnold,  166. 
Fox,  Francis  William,  169. 
Fresnel,  219. 

Gautama,  68,  69  ff;  renun- 
ciation, 70  ;  e  n  1  i  g  h  t  e  n- 
ment,  72;  doctrine,  77  ff; 
ethics  of,  87,  92  f. 


Genebrard,  180. 

Gibson,  161. 

Goreh,  Nehemiah,  9. 

"Great   Japan    Buddhists' 

Union,"  319. 
Griswold,  9. 
Gungram,  52. 
Guru  Prasad  Sen,  43. 

Hail,  J.  E.,  95. 

Haji,  210. 

Haldar,  Sukumar,  6,  20. 

Hall,   Charles  Cuthbert,  40. 

Hanifs,  201. 

Hill,  Mrs.,  354. 

Hinayana,  96,  99. 

Hinduism,  character  of  its 
gods,  50  f;  character  of 
priesthood,    22;  complex- 


itj, 


contact     with 


Christianity,  54  ff;  con- 
trast with  Christianity,  52 
ff;  deficiencies  of,  43-54; 
good  in,  6  f ;  insufficiency 
of,  41  f;  philosophic,  15 
ff;  popular,  19  ff,  23; 
present  day  character,  15; 
reformed,  25-41;  reform 
of,  due  to  Christianity,  38 
f,  sacred  books,  7  ff. 

"Hindu,  The,"  22. 

Hobhouse,  346. 

Honda,  Bishop,  246,  248, 
257,  259,  267,  284,  290. 

Hopkins,  Professor,  9,   54. 

Houghton,  Lord,  221,  231. 

Hume,  R.  E.,  342. 

Ibuka,  K.,  116,  246,  248, 
251,  257,  -263,  266,  279, 
285,  287. 

Ijma,  199. 

Imad  ud  Din,  274. 

Imam,  213  f. 

Imbrie,  William,  116. 

Indian  people,  noble  quali- 
ties of,  4. 

"Indian  Social  Reformer," 
320. 

Inglis,  James  W\,  162. 

Isma'il    Hakki  Effendi,  199. 

Iwahashi,  113. 

Tainism,  69. 


INDEX 


371 


Jaisohn,     247    f,     255,     258, 

265,  267,  281,  286. 
Jessup,    H.    H.,  345,  352. 
Jevons,  313  f,  335,  345  f. 
Johnson,  Archdeacon,  129. 
Jowett,  363. 

Kabir,  25  f. 

Kalima,  208. 

Karma,  83  f. 

Kayastha  Samachar,  15. 

Keene,  225. 

Kellogg,  S.  H.,  321. 

Ke  Loo,  123. 

Keshub  Chunder  Sen,  32  ff. 

Khalid,  237. 

Kheiralla,  215. 

Kidd,  Benjamin,  39. 

Kil,    247     f,    253,    255,    258, 

265,  268,  280,  286,  290. 
Kingslev,  Charles,  181. 
Koran,  195£f,  222,  226f,  233. 
Kozaki,  246  f,  249,  256,  259, 

267,  277,  285,  293. 
Krishna,  6,  11  f,  51  f,  345. 
Kuenen,  183,  341  f,  348. 
Kume,  Professor,  106. 

Ladd,  George  T.,  334. 
Lao-tsze,  157-162,  350. 
Lefroy,  Bishop,   193. 
Legge,  135,  145,  159. 
Lloyd,  A.,  116. 
Lucas,  Bernard,  59. 

Macalister,  Professor  Alex- 
ander, 169. 

Macdonald,  343. 

Macnicol,  56. 

Madhava  Rao,  38. 

Mahayana,  96,  99  f. 

Malcolm,  Napier,  221. 

Margoliouth,   193. 

Martel,  Charles,  211. 

Martin,  A.  W.,  304,  325  f. 

Martin,   W.  A.  P.,  115,  353. 

Maurice,  F.  D.,  181. 

Mencius,  150,  153  ff. 

Menzies,  347. 

Mishkat,  228. 

Mohamined,  diverse  judg- 
ments of,  180  f;  place  in 
Mohammedanism,  18  2; 
life  of,  183  ff;  the  Hegira, 


186;  use  of  force,  189  f; 
influence,  192  f;  problem 
of  his  character,  193  ff. 

Mohammedanism,  the 
youngest  world  religion, 
179;  supersedes  Christi- 
anity, 179;  place  of  Mo- 
hammed in,  182 ;  first 
believers,  185  ;  use  offeree, 
188  ff;  foundations  of, 
195-200;  doctrines  of,  200- 
208;  practical  duties  of, 
208-210;  spread  of,  210  f ; 
schism,  212  ff;  moral 
effects,  218  f ;  petrifying 
influence,  220  f;  morally 
defective,  222-229;  intof- 
erance,  226 ;  contrasts 
with  Christianity,  229-233 ; 
contacts  with  C  h  r  i  s  t  i  - 
anity,  233-237. 

Monier  Williams,  on  the 
character  of  Indian  peo- 
ple, 6;  on  the  Upanishads, 
10;  on  popular  Hinduism, 
23 ;  on  Ram  Mohun  Roy, 
27;  on  Buddhism,  68,  76, 
110  f. 

Moothsowami  Tyer,  356. 

Moslem,  185. 

Muavia,  212. 

Muir,  Sir  William,  219,  224. 

Mukerji,  247,  249,  253,  271, 
282,  287,   291. 

Muller,  Max,  on  good  in 
ethnic  religions,  7;  on 
the  Upanishads,  10 ;  on 
comparative  religion,  301, 
306  f,  311  f,  316  f,  323. 

Namaz,  208. 

Nassau,  R.  H.,  128  f,  131  f. 

Nanak,  26. 

Naryan  Sheshadri,  49. 

Nevius,  J.  L.,  142. 

Nirvana,  82  f,  85. 

Northern  Buddhism,  97  f. 

Okuma,  104,  109. 
Oldenberg,  349. 
Omar,  190,  192,  211,  217,  229. 
Omar  Khayyam,  206,  207. 

Palgfrave,  218. 


372 


INDEX 


Pantheism,  47. 

Parliament  of  Religions, 304. 

Poole,  Stanley  Lane,  224. 

''Press,  The  Seoul,"  108. 

Prideaux,  Dean,  180. 

Pung    Kvvang    Yu,  125,  141, 

146. 
Qias,  199. 

Ramakrishna  Paramahansa, 

18. 
Ramanathan,  319. 
Ram  Chundra,  14. 
Ram  Mohun  Roj,  27  ff,  50. 
Ranade,  323. 
''Reis  and  Rajyet,"  21. 
Rhys  Davids,  "64  f. 
Richard,  Timothy,  101. 
Robinson,  Canon  C.  H.,  94. 
Ross,  Alexander,  180. 
Rothe,  Richard,  361. 
Roza,  209. 

Saktism,  23. 

Sale,  180. 

Sangha,  73,  90  f. 

Saradananda,  17. 

Schopenhauer,  9. 

Sell,  208. 

Shaku   Soyen,  113. 

Shedd,  W.  A.,  216. 

Shiahs,  213. 

Shinto  ism,  104  f,  259. 

Simpson,  Sir  Alexander, 
169. 

Siraj  ud  Din,  247,  249,  254, 
256,  258,  266,  274,  283, 
287,  291. 

Siva,  19. 

Slater,  on  Christian  influ- 
ence on  Hinduism,  39  f ; 
on  insufficiency  of  Hin- 
duism, 42 ;  on  the  Bhaga- 
vad-gita,  11 ;  on  Vedant- 
ism,  11,  16. 

Smith,   Bos  worth,  231  ff. 

Smith,   Robertson,  219. 

Sobieski,  John,    211. 

Steinthal,  F.  W.,  58. 

Stobart,  220. 

Subhadra  Bhikshu,   79. 

Sufiism,  216. 

Sunnat,  198. 


Sunnis,  213. 

Tai-ping  rebels,  103. 
Takakusu,  104. 
Tantras,  23. 
Taoism,  157-162. 
Tao  Teh  King,  159. 
Taylor,  Jeremy,  89. 
Thoburn,  Bishop,  328. 
Tibetan  Buddhism,  97  f. 
Tiele,  303  f,  364. 
''Times,  The  Japan,"   108. 
Tisdall,  St.    Clair,  328,  330. 
Townsend,     Meredith,     246, 

276  ff,  310. 
Transmigration,  79. 
Tsen,    247   f,    253,    255,  257, 

265,  268,  281,  286,  290. 
Tsuzuki,  106. 

Tylor,  128. 

Uchimura,  Kanzo,  108,  117, 

308  f,  362. 
Uemura,  247,  252,  256,  259, 

266,  278,  284,  289,  293. 
Uhlhorn,  350. 
Upanishads,  9  f,  21  f,  3. 
Upaka,  72. 

Vaishnava  Movement,  26  f. 
Varuna,  9. 

Vedantism,  11,  13,  15  ff. 
Vedas,  7  f,  35,  37. 
Vishnu,  19,  20,  25  t. 
Vivakananda,  17  f,  23  f,  48. 

Wahabism,  216  f. 

Waitz,  344. 

Warneck,  128,  130. 

Washburn,  203. 

Watanabe,  Justice,  247,  252, 

268,  279,  284,  290. 
Wesley,  Charles,  180. 
Westcott,  Bishop,  340,  364  f. 
Williams,  S.,  345. 
Williams,  S.  Wells,  172  f. 
Woman,    in    Buddhism,    87, 

95;  in  Christianity,  349  ff; 

in    Confucianism,    168    f; 

in  Hinduism,  45  f,  356;  in 

Mohammedanism,  219,  222 

ff. 
Yasodhara,  70. 
Zakat,  209. 


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